Milking cows in New Zealand at 31 January 1964 numbered 2,010,868, and of these 1,563,951, or 78 per cent of them, were to be found in the North and South Auckland, and Taranaki Land Districts. The Wellington Land District carried 205,704, or a further 10 per cent. Such a preponderance of dairying in the North Island, and more particularly in its northern and western areas, is not due to chance but to an awareness by dairy farmers that these districts possess certain natural attributes that favour it as a system of farming. In these areas a method of dairy farming has been evolved which is successful and competes favourably with other agricultural enterprises for the use of land.

better known as Cecil Charles (1899– ).

Cricketer.

Cecil Charles Dacre was born at Devonport, Auckland, on 15 May 1899. While still at Devonport Primary School, Auckland, he scored seven centuries in eight innings during one season. He made his debut in first-class cricket on 26 December 1914 when he played for Auckland against Wellington at Eden Park. He represented New Zealand against Australia (1920–21); M.C.C. (1922–23); New South Wales (1923–24); Victoria (1924–25); on the Australian tour (1925–26); against Melbourne (1926–27); on the English tour (1927); and against New South Wales (1927–28). In 1930 he qualified to play professional cricket for Gloucestershire County and played there until 1936, when arthritis forced him to retire from the game. C. C. Dacre's batting record in New Zealand first-class cricket is as follows: eight centuries (six in New Zealand and two overseas) including centuries in each innings against Victoria at Auckland in 1924–25. He holds the record for a fifth-wicket partnership in New Zealand (1926–27) when Dacre (109) and C. F. W. Allcott (87) added 196 runs in the Auckland v. Otago match. As vice-captain of the New Zealand team on the English tour of 1927, Dacre played in 24 innings, scored two centuries (highest score 176) and 1,070 runs with an average of 31.47. On this tour he bowled 50 overs, 13 being maidens, and took eight wickets for 133 runs. On two occasions in New Zealand he scored more than 200 runs for two innings; Auckland v. Wellington, 1922–23, when he made 213 (145 and 68); and Auckland v. Victoria, 1926–27, when he made 228 (127 not out and 101 not out). On 4 January 1927, in the Auckland v. Otago match at Dunedin, Dacre scored 105 runs in 102 minutes before lunch. During his career in New Zealand first-class cricket, he recorded 3,550 runs, of which 1,377 were made overseas. In all, he made 69 individual appearances for New Zealand, of which 28 were overseas.

In New Zealand Cricketers, R. T. Brittenden records that, while Dacre did not have much time for cricket theories, he believed “that the half-volley should be hit if possible, back over the bowler's head”.

Apart from his interest in cricket, Dacre was a New Zealand association football representative at inside left.

(1865–1957).

Anglican Archbishop of New Zealand, Bishop of Auckland, Bishop of Waiapu.

A new biography of Averill, Alfred Walter appears in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography on this site.

Alfred Walter Averill was born at Stafford, England, in 1865, the son of H. A. Averill. He was educated at King Edward VI School, Stafford, and St. John's College, Oxford, being in the college rugby XV and eights. He graduated bachelor of arts in 1887, master in 1891, and received an honorary doctorate of divinity in 1912. He attended Ely Theological College in 1888, and was ordained deacon in 1888 and priest in 1889. Averill was curate of St. George's, Hanover Square (1888–91), and Holy Trinity, Dalston (1891–94). On 30 November 1893 he married Mary Weir, and had a family of one daughter and four sons.

Averill came to New Zealand in 1894 as Vicar of St. Michael's, Christchurch, which position he held till 1909. He was also an honorary Canon of Christchurch Cathedral (1902–09), Archdeacon of Akaroa (1903–09), and Archdeacon of Christchurch (1909–10). Averill was consecrated Bishop of Waiapu on 16 January 1910 and during the time he held this office he made an annual visitation of all parts of the diocese, despite primitive travelling conditions. He came to know and love the Maoris well and continually maintained a deep interest in their spiritual and physical welfare. As a result, at the second General Synod in 1928, the Reverend F. A. Bennett was appointed first Bishop of Aotearoa.

When the Diocese of Auckland fell vacant after Bishops Neligan and Crossley had been forced to retire through ill health, Averill took the episcopate and was enthroned on 14 February 1914. Despite the great area of the diocese, which extended from North Cape to the middle of the King Country and included part of Taranaki, Averill entered into his work with unflagging enthusiasm. He restored historic buildings, notably the old mission buildings at Kohimarama and St. Stephen's Chapel, Parnell, which had fallen into disrepair. He took a great interest in schools, consecrating chapels at the Diocesan School and King's College, and by his efforts securing King's College as a church school. He appointed the Reverend Jasper Calder first Auckland City Missioner on 22 May 1920. New buildings both for the Order of the Good Shepherd and for the Missions to Seamen were completed during his episcopacy. The Archbishop's Church Extension Fund, which he founded, enabled new districts to be opened up and new buildings to be erected.

Averill was made Archbishop of New Zealand on 21 April 1925. As a result of his added duties, he now found it impossible to supervise adequately the Auckland Diocese; thus in early 1926 the Waikato, King Country, and Taranaki areas were constituted the new Diocese of Waikato.

During Averill's long association with General Synod, much legislation was passed, including a Bill to alter the Fundamental Provisions of the Constitution in 1925 and enactments governing the appointment of bishops and clergy. The cause of the Bible in Schools League was advanced considerably by his enthusiastic support. He attended Lambeth Conferences in 1920 and 1930, where he stood tenth in precedence. At the latter, he took a very active part in a subcommittee which made an historical pronouncement on Christian reunion. Throughout his long ministry Averill strove to make the influence of the church felt in public life; consequently he actively supported the Venerable Order of St. John, the Society for the Protection of Women and Children, the Royal Empire Society, and Rotary Clubs.

He retired from the Primacy in March 1940 and was made a Companion of the Most Distinguished Order of St. Michael and St. George (C.M.G.) in 1957, a few months before he died in Christchurch on 6 July.

Averill's forceful personality, intellectual powers, and breadth of understanding made him a distinguished church and national leader, while his direct and honest approach and kindliness established him as a man beloved of the people.

by John Sidney Gully, M.A., DIP.N.Z.L.S., Assistant Chief Librarian, General Assembly Library, Wellington.

• Fifty Years in New Zealand, 1894–1944, Averill, Alfred Walter (1947)
• New Zealand Herald, 8 Jul 1957 (Obit)
• Church and People, Aug 1957 (Obit).

The first definite record of the appearance of the aurora australis was made by Captain Cook in his southern voyages in 1773. Apart from general reports on exceptional displays, no serious study of the phenomenon was carried out in New Zealand until the late 1920s when I. L. Thomsen and M. Geddes, working as amateurs, followed a plan of research. This activity was accepted as an official programme of the newly established Carter Observatory in 1939, and a detailed record was secured up to 1958. Due to the enthusiasm of some hundreds of volunteers, a coverage was secured over the whole of New Zealand, Tasmania, and parts of Australia. Since 1958 the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research has organised intensive research with modern instruments such as spectrographs, all-sky cameras, and radar, both in New Zealand and in the Antarctic. This work was also stimulated by the requirements of the International Geophysical Year (IGY), during 1957–58.

Although the full detailed mechanism of the cause of the aurora is not yet known, it seems quite certain that atomic particles coming from the sun and entering our atmosphere cause the characteristic “lights”. As these atomic particles are charged their paths are deflected by the earth's magnetic field; hence the aurorae occur most frequently near the polar regions. At times of intense activity, however, they can make an appearance even in the tropics. General auroral frequency is similar to that of sunspot activity fluctuations in a period of 11 years, and many individual instances are on record of the occurrence of brilliant aurorae at the time of the appearance of large active sunspots. These factors clearly show the connection with solar events.

Two principal appearances are noted with aurorae–the arc and ray types. Each may appear separately or in combination. The arc is a diffuse wide band of light extending across the southern horizon, while rays have an appearance analogous to searchlight beams. In general, all types are common both to the aurora borealis (or “northern lights” in the northern hemisphere) and to the aurora australis. Arcs occur in a region of the atmosphere 100 km above the earth, while rays can extend from this level to 500 km.

During intense auroral displays, long distance radio reception can be adversely affected, as may be inferred from the fact that aurorae inhabit the same region as the E-layer of the ionosphere (100 km above the earth). The E-layer is one of the reflecting regions for radio waves of certain frequencies, making possible long distance communications.

Foreknowledge of probable sudden ionospheric disturbances of this nature is of value to radio communication engineers, and for some years the Carter Observatory has supplied such a prediction service with some measure of success both to the New Zealand Post Office and to the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation.

by Ivan Leslie Thomsen, F.R.A.S.(LOND.), Director, Carter Observatory, Wellington.

The factors which have influenced the growth of population within the region are easily discerned; the port, the development of the surrounding farming districts, especially the Waikato, the general trend towards urbanisation, and secondary and tertiary employment. An examination of the cargoes moving through the port of Auckland illustrates the role played by the urban area in the economy of the surrounding and predominantly agricultural regions and its role as an industrial and manufacturing centre. Both coastal and overseas shipping are important, the latter accounting for twice the amount of cargo: 126,444 tons of butter, 108,650 tons of milk products, 94,159 tons of frozen meat, 46,119 tons of wool, 20,920 tons of tallow, 16,414 tons of hides and skins, and 13,242 tons of cheese–it amounts to a table of overseas trade–are exported through Auckland. In addition there is a notable coastal trade to other New Zealand ports in iron and steel pipes, manures and machinery, motor vehicle parts, consisting of goods first imported and processed or even manufactured in Auckland. Clearly reflecting some of Auckland's industries is the coastal trade in sugar, 50,307 tons, with a further 10,000 tons leaving the port of Onehunga, manures 17,091 tons, and 13,506 tons of beer and other alcoholic products. The overseas imports are divisible into two categories, those required for the victualling of the urban population and those required for the provisioning of the agricultural and manufacturing industries. In the first category are included 117,742 tons of sugar and 44,925 tons of fresh fruit, both stressing Auckland's connection with the Pacific Island territories, and a further 95,320 tons of grain. In the second category one includes 334,690 tons of motor spirit and 238,424 tons of oil and oil products, 291,820 tons of manure, 169,233 tons of steel and iron pipes, etc., 57,132 tons of machinery, and 44,090 tons of timber.

The growth of manufacturing as a factor in Auckland's development needs stressing, for the Auckland Employment District which corresponds closely with the limits of the region as defined here, includes 22·88 per cent of the total civilian labour force in New Zealand, amounting to 204,000 persons in April 1961. In terms of numbers employed, 71,000, the Auckland region is the most important manufacturing centre of New Zealand and accounts for 30·55 per cent of the total labour force in manufacturing. In addition it has the highest proportion of any region, 34·78 per cent, of its labour force engaged in manufacturing. It does not, however, have an especially distinct industrial structure. For distinctiveness one must go to the Wellington region or, in another sense, to the Dunedin region. In Auckland one-third of the total manufacturing labour force is engaged in the engineering and metal industries and one-fifth is engaged in the textile clothing and other industries, whilst 15 per cent is engaged in food, drink, and tobacco manufacturing industries. It would be true to say, however, that the area is noted for the innovations which are occurring in its industries and for the establishment of many industries that are important to the country's industrial future. As is to be expected, the rate of growth of the total labour force in the Auckland region has been very high in the period 1953–61, 31·67 per cent and the rate of growth of the labour force engaged in manufacturing has been even higher, 33·70 per cent, both rates being above their respective national figures.

Everything points to the Auckland region as being the most dynamic in New Zealand. During the decade 1951–61 the total population increased by 35·60 per cent. Growth was particularly rapid in the peripheral areas; thus the population of Manukau County with its interior boroughs increased by 100·42 per cent, and by 73·72 per cent for Waitemata County and its interior boroughs. Containing as it does one-fifth of the total New Zealand population, the Auckland region ranks as the first region of the Dominion. And in the light of the population projections one can only suppose that its influence in national affairs will increase further. At the turn of the century André Siegfried forecast that, under the benefice of the mild climate and easy life of the northern parts, there would come the emergence of a “new colonial race, differing from the Australians as from the English, and which perhaps will one day be the New Zealand race”. Everyone would agree that the focus of this development now lies in the Auckland region where all the forces are concentrated which are breaking with the old traditions and promoting new ones. In the coming decades the region will be the principal setting for the greatest period of urbanisation, industrialisation, and miscegenation as yet experienced in the short history of the Dominion.

by Samuel Harvey Franklin, B.COM.GEOG., M.A.(BIRMINGHAM), Senior Lecturer, Geography Department, Victoria University of Wellington.

• New Zealand's Industrial Potential, Ward, M. W., and Ward, R. G. eds. (1960), “Industrial Development Within The Auckland Metropolitan Region”, Carr, D.
• New Zealand Geographer, Vol. 15, Oct 1959, “Auckland by Gaslight–an Urban Geography of 1896”, Armstrong, R. W.
• Ibid., Vol 18, Apr 1962, “Development of a City Centre - an Auckland Example”, Dudson, G. H.
• Ibid., Vol. 15, Oct 1959, “Market Gardening in Metropolitan Auckland”, Hunt, T. D.
• Ibid., Vol. 17, Oct 1961, “Aspects of Rural Settlement in the Lowlands of Franklin County”, Kennedy, T. F.
• Ibid., Vol. 14, Apr 1958, “Manufacturing in Auckland - its Origins and Growth, 1840-1936”, Linge, G. J. R.
• Ibid., Vol. 6, Oct 1950, “Metropolitan Auckland 1840-1945”, Pownall, L. L.
• Ibid., Vol. 7, Apr 1951, “Metropolitan Auckland - the Contemporary Character”, Pownall, L. L.
• Ibid., Vol. 17, Apr 1961, “The Age of the Auckland Volcanoes”, Searle, E.J.

It is clear from the mere recounting of population figures that the region has experienced a remarkable growth in the past few decades and there is every reason to believe that the growth will continue. In figures the region's population in 1926 totalled 229,976; by 1951 it had reached 372,827, and in 1961, 502,483. It is estimated that the population will have reached by 1981 a figure of 890,000. Much of the growth will probably take place on the periphery, in the north around the East Coast Bays and Henderson, in the east around Howick, and in the south around Papakura and Manurewa. Some of the more central boroughs, such as Mount Wellington and Mount Roskill, are expected to reveal substantial increases as redevelopment occurs. The trend of population in the older and more central borough areas will depend upon the success obtained in promoting higher residential densities.

One obvious result of this urban expansion is the continuing loss of agricultural land. In the south of the region, particularly in Franklin County, dairy farming is important, as are the 1,700 acres of market gardening land in the Pukekohe-Bombay area, and the potential livestock carrying capacity of the area is reckoned to be considerable. Close by the built-up areas lie significant acreages of market garden land. From around Henderson comes as much as 12 per cent by value of the nation's fruit production, in addition to the products of the vineyards. The conservation of agricultural land is not the only problem faced by the regional planners. The question of the circulation and the congestion of traffic, the competition between central and peripheral shopping areas, the separation of work place and residence, the archaic pattern of local government, make up the familiar planning problems of a large urban centre. In addition there are a group of problems associated with the establishment of non-European residents in the region.

One of the most portentous developments of the last decade, and one that is arousing a lot of discussion, is the rapid increase in Maoris and, though numerically less important, of other Polynesian immigrants, Samoans, Cook Islanders, Niueans, and Tongans. In 1951, 7,621 Maoris were resident in the Auckland Urban Area; at the 1961 Census 19,847 were recorded, a 160·42 per cent increase which is overwhelmingly the product of immigration. Inevitably this population contrasts in a variety of respects with the European population; it is on average a much younger population with a particular concentration in the 15–30 age group; and as with most immigrant populations there is an excess of males per hundred females, 101·44; the European ratio is 95·51 males per 100 females. The Maori disproportion is not excessive and is to be considered as an indication of a satisfactory state of affairs, especially when the ratio of Niueans is known to be 155, the Samoans 119, and the Chinese, who are a small and long-settled group receiving very few additional migrants, is 161. A further indication of the permanent nature which Maori settlement is assuming arises out of their distribution within the region. Whereas, for instance, 90 per cent of the Cook Islanders are concentrated in the very central parts of Auckland, whose conditions are clearly indicated by their designation as redevelopment areas, the Maoris are more dispersed. A decline of numbers resident in the central parts is matched by a marked increase in the outer suburbs, a trend assisted by State provided finance for houses, stimulated by the location of industrial factories away from the central area, and not inhibited by such strong and inflexible kin and neighbourhood associations which keep the Cook Islanders within a more restricted area. Unfortunately the occupational structure of the Auckland Maoris is not readily obtainable. In 1956 Cook Island residents in Auckland numbered 1,088; Niueans, 1,703; Samoans, 2,288, admittedly rather small populations, but ones that have increased from a few hundred in 1945 and which present their own complex and individual problems associated with integration.

The built-up area which lies within the boundaries of Auckland city extends along the southern shore of Waitemata Harbour from Port Chevalier in the west, through the suburbs of Freemans Bay, Parnell, Remuera, Mission Bay, St. Heliers, to Glendowie in the east. Contiguous and quite indistinguishable from the rest of the urban mass are the adjacent boroughs of Mount Albert, Mount Eden, and Newmarket which occupy the central portion of the land between the two harbours. The total population of this whole group approximates to 190,000 inhabitants. On the northern side of the Manukau Harbour, and again contiguous, are the county towns of Titirangi and Green Bay, the boroughs of Glen Eden and New Lynn in the west; and proceeding eastwards one passes through the boroughs of Mount Roskill, Onehunga, One Tree Hill, Ellerslie, and Mount Wellington: in all another 99,000 people. Many of the region's industrial plants are located in these latter three boroughs. The narrow piece of land between the Tamaki River and the Manukau Harbour is occupied by the borough of Otahuhu, with the boroughs of Papatoetoe, Manurewa, and Papakura extending southwards along the main highway. These four boroughs, together with the county towns of Mangere East and Mangere Bridge, account for approximately 54,000 inhabitants. At Papakura the southernmost limit of the closely built-up part is reached. To the east of the Tamaki River marked urban development has taken place in the post-war period so that the boroughs of Howick and the county towns of Bucklands and Eastern Beaches and Pakuranga now include some 10,000 residents.

Across the Waitemata Harbour are the older suburbs of Devonport, Northcote, Birkenhead (all boroughs), and Takapuna (now a city), whilst further north the more recent settlements along the coast have combined to form the East Coast Bays Borough. About 53,000 people reside in these five boroughs. Indicative of the rapid growth in this area in the post-war period are the figures for Glenfield, a county town which in 1951 had about 482 residents as counted by the census; in 1961 the population had increased to 5,683. The North Shore is immensely attractive as a residential area and the opening of the Auckland Harbour Bridge in 1959 has considerably stimulated settlement, since it has removed the necessity of a long and time-consuming trip around the Waitemata Harbour and put an end to the more frequented trip across the harbour by car ferry. In addition to the more nucleated suburbs and settlements, a considerable amount of ribbon development is taking place as city dwellers choose more northerly sites for their new homes. Some of the older villages have become suburban in character, and settlements such as Orewa are gaining popularity as weekend resorts. But in fact the Aucklanders can find their weekend relaxation as far north as Leigh.

The scenic attractions of the Auckland region derive from two main features, the ria-like but extensive Waitemata Harbour, which is superb for yachting, and the volcanic activities of the Tertiary period which has been responsible for the large number of volcanic cones that stand above the general level of the terrain. Rangitoto, the most symmetrical and famous, stands off the North Shore just outside the harbour and as a reserve is preferred by picnickers. The other cones, closer to the city, have been chosen as domains and parks or, worse, as sources of road metal. In general the region in its eastern portion is underlain with rocks of Tertiary age or greywackes. These latter rocks give rise to the Hunua Ranges on the western side of the Firth of Thames from where the city draws its water supplies. In the Pukekohe area is an extensive area of volcanic rock. An important area for market gardening is associated with the fertile soils which are derived from these rocks. On the eastern side of the region, between the mouth of the Waikato River and the entrance to the Manukau Harbour, is a low-lying area of Quaternary deposits given over to rich dairying country. But across Manukau Harbour rise the Waitakeres to 1,580 ft. This ridge is bush covered and offers a pleasant scenic drive, though recently encroachment by housing has been very marked. As this brief sketch of the geology indicates, the land forms and the scenery of the region are quite diverse. In close juxtaposition are rich dairying or market gardening lands, bush reserve and domain, and, in addition, city and suburb, beach and harbour, industry and commerce.

The Auckland region is a predominantly urban area centred on the isthmus between the Waitemata and Manukau Harbours but extending over a considerable area both to the north and to the south. It is contained within the boundaries of Waitemata, Eden, Manukau and Franklin counties, which, together with their interior cities and boroughs, constitute the principal basis for the collection of statistics. Auckland city, with a population of 143,583, is the largest single administrative body in the region. In 1961 the total population of the region was 502,483 (representing 20·80 per cent of the total New Zealand population), 4·87 per cent of which were Maoris.

The need to treat the Auckland region separately arises because the economic and social reality of this extensive conurbation–and with a population of half a million it warrants the term–is obscured, especially for readers overseas, by the multiplicity of place names and the large number of local government bodies which undertake the civic administration of the area.

The core of the region is Auckland city itself, with its wharves at the foot of Queen Street, the principal shopping thoroughfare. In the immediate vicinity are a group of financial houses and banks, Government offices for national and local purposes, the civic and cultural buildings, the university, and Albert Park, which is one of the pleasures of the city. In addition a range of small factories populate the back streets and upper stories. The huddle of multi-storey blocks, when seen from the air, clearly marks the centre of the conurbation which contains a third of the conurbation's total population. The larger proportion of the remainder, however, is to be found concentrated around Auckland city on the narrow strip of land between the Waitemata and Manukau Harbours; the rest, urban, rural, and semi-rural, is scattered as far north as Orewa and as far south as Bombay and Pukekohe.

In 1874 the population of Auckland Province was 73,300. In 1911 it was 296,000 and it increased to 871,745 in 1956 and 997,000 in 1961, when it contained 41 per cent of the New Zealand population. Since 1911 Auckland has accounted for 52 per cent of all the New Zealand population increase, but not all parts of the provincial district have shared in recent growth. There has been rural depopulation in remoter hill-country areas–in the King Country, the Gisborne-East Cape district, and in rural Northland–all of these being areas where Maoris form a high proportion of the total population. Some of the older settled dairying counties of the Waikato have stable or even declining populations. The areas of most consistent and steady increase since the 1920s are the southern margins of the Waikato, the Bay of Plenty, and Rotorua-Taupo districts. The most remarkable development of recent decades, however, has been the growth of Auckland urban area to a population of nearly 450,000 in 1961. An interesting trend has been the movement of young Maoris from rural districts into this city. In 1936 the Auckland urban area had only 1,700 Maoris. In 1961 it had 20,000, or 12 per cent of the total Maori population of New Zealand.

by Murray McCaskill, M.A., PH.D., Reader in Geography, University of Canterbury.

• An Ulster Plantation, Gray, A. J. (1950)
• The Maori King, Gorst, J. E. (1959)
• Historic Poverty Bay, Mackay, J. E. (1949)
• The Gael Fares Forth, McKenzie, N. R. (1942)
• Armed Settlers, Norris, H. C. M. (1956)
• Auckland–the City of the Seas, Reed, A. W. (1955)
• Pioneering the Pumice, Vaile, E. E. (1939)
• South Auckland, Wily, H. E. R. L. (1939).