In June 1964 the Minister of Internal Affairs announced the inauguration of a “Mammoth Golden Kiwi” lottery to be run on the lines of the Golden Kiwi. There would be 250,000 tickets at £1 each, with 2,886 prizes (£135,000 in all), the first prize being £60,000. Four of these “Mammoth” lotteries are planned for each year. Profits are to be devoted to national purposes and those from the first lottery will be used to develop projects dealing with the welfare of elderly people. Although certain church organisations made strong protests at this extension of gambling, the official attitude was that the “Mammoth” lottery would be a counter to those run overseas, with the added advantage that all profits would be retained within New Zealand.

The demand for these tickets has been so great that, on 27 May 1965, the Minister of Internal Affairs announced that Golden Kiwi Mammoth Lottery tickets would be continuously available to the public for a trial period. This step was taken because the Government felt that the relative infrequency of such lotteries tended to create an artificial demand for tickets.

by William Mouat Bolt, Executive Officer, Gaming Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington.

The present Golden Kiwi lotteries (formerly art unions) came into existence more through a combination of circumstances than through any particular desire on the part of the Government at the time to raise funds for distribution to charitable or philanthropic purposes or objects.

The situation developed in 1929 from the visit to New Zealand of the late Sir Charles Kingsford Smith. His tour of New Zealand in the “Southern Cross” aroused widespread interest and enthusiasm. Those keenly interested in aviation seized on the opportunity and sought permission from the Government for £4,000 alluvial gold art unions, the profits to be devoted to the purchase of land for aerodromes. The Auckland Aero Club organised the first major art union and made a profit of £13,000. Other aero clubs followed and all made substantial profits.

Publicity given to the success of these efforts immediately aroused the interest of charitable and other organisations, and a number of these were also authorised to conduct art unions. All these efforts, which were granted three months of operation, were successful, the outcome being that the Government received a spate of applications from all kinds of organisations. Obviously, with a three months' selling period, all these applications could not be catered for and it was at this stage (in 1932) that the Government was forced to take an interest in the disposal of the profits of major art unions.

The Government then entered into an agreement with a private firm (Messrs Hammond and McArthur Ltd.), which was granted licences to conduct art unions for the purpose of raising funds for specific objects, the profits to be distributed by the Minister of Internal Affairs. This position continued until 1961. During the period 1932–61 the prize list was increased on several occasions, eventually reaching £10,000. Tickets were sold at 2s. 6d. each and ticket sales were unlimited. Until 1956 drawings took place at monthly intervals, thereafter at three-weekly intervals. The average annual profit for the period 1956–60 was approximately £220,000. In 1961 the Government decided to replace the art unions with the present Golden Kiwi lottery. This lottery has a total prize list of £30,000 (first prize £12,000) and is limited to 250,000 5s. tickets. The demand for tickets has exceeded all expectations. Each lottery is drawn when all tickets are sold. During the first 12 months of operation 76 lotteries have been drawn, and the profit was £1,360,000.

Publicity given to the profits immediately resulted in a spate of applications to the Minister of Internal Affairs for assistance from all kinds of organisations. As this placed too great a burden on the Minister, the Government decided to introduce legislation to provide for the distribution of profits and other matters relating to the operation of these lotteries. The Gaming Amendment Act of 1962 makes provision for a board of control to determine the overall policy in respect of the distribution of profits and also for the establishment of distribution committees. The Board of Control consists of the Minister of Internal Affairs as chairman, the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Official Opposition, and three persons appointed by the Governor-General.

The term “art union” is today used in a wider sense than the sense in which it is employed in the gaming legislation. The art union proper as defined in the Gaming Act exists only to a limited extent in New Zealand, and is confined to a few academies or societies of fine arts.

What has generally become known as the art union is the national lottery. The term “art union” is due to the fact that originally the prizes in the lottery were alluvial gold. These major art unions are now known as the Golden Kiwi lottery.

Until 1949 the issue of licences to organisations to conduct raffles was rigidly controlled and comparatively few licences were granted. The scope of prizes was confined to works of art, mineral specimens, and mechanical models. Further, the value of the prizes was, as a matter of policy, restricted, the average value permitted being approximately £25. Only in a few special cases were prize lists of £50 or 100 permitted.

This somewhat repressive policy had the following effects:

1. It caused normally law-abiding organisations, who desired to raise funds for charitable, philanthropic or sporting purposes, to embark on illegal raffles.

2. It brought the lottery legislation into disrepute and contempt. The majority of New Zealanders undoubtedly regard raffles as innocuous.

The upshot was that eventually New Zealand became inundated with all kinds of illegal raffles operating with various devices and subterfuges all designed to one end – to defeat the legislation. The most common method of evasion adopted by organisers was to issue tickets merely bearing the word “donation” together with a consecutive number. In effect, the public were invited to donate 6d. or 1s. to the particular purpose or objective, and in return were afforded the opportunity, by means of the consecutive number, to win a prize. Despite the opportunities for fraudulent practices on the part of the organisers, the general public did not hesitate to support these illegal raffles. Attempts were made by the Police to pursue a vigorous policy of law enforcement of the legislation prohibiting illegal raffles, but this was not particularly successful, mainly because participants were unwilling to come forward and provide the necessary evidence.

Following on the report of a Royal Commission on Gaming and Racing in 1947–48, the Government decided on a change of policy in respect of gambling generally. It came to the conclusion that repressive measures were ineffective and, consequently, it would be better to bring gambling out into the open where its volume and effect could be gauged and where steps could be taken for its guidance and control. Accordingly, the Gaming Amendment Act of 1949 was passed. Sections 16 and 17 of that Act were designed to widen the scope of prizes and to facilitate the issue of licences. It was considered that these relaxations would encourage organisations to operate raffles legally; thus the public would be afforded protection against fraudulent practices. That this liberal policy is effective is clearly shown by the fact that 1,625 raffle licences were issued in 1954, as against 507 in 1948. Further, it can be stated with confidence that illegal raffles have almost been eliminated in New Zealand. There is little doubt that organisations prefer to conduct raffles legally rather than illegally. The more liberal policy has also greatly eased the burden of law enforcement in respect of illegal raffles. With their gradual elimination, very little in the way of law enforcement is required and nowadays, when prosecutions are pursued, the offenders do not, as formerly, arouse public sympathy.

The present position is that small raffles in which no individual prize exceeds £10 in value and the total aggregate of prizes does not exceed £25 are licensed by the Police. In all other cases the licences are issued by the Department of Internal Affairs.

Prize limits in raffles are restricted, depending on whether the organisation concerned is local, provincial, or national. Selling areas are also restricted on the same basis. Up to a three months' selling period is permitted. Lottery duty of 10 per cent on gross sales is levied in all cases where the total prize list exceeds £500. The prohibited items in respect of prizes are motorcars (other than motor scooters or go-karts), houses or residential accommodation, firearms and ammunition, and intoxicating liquor. The raffling of land is permitted in certain circumstances.

(1915– ).

Chairman, New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation.

Frederick John Llewellyn was born in England on 29 April 1915 and educated at Dursley Grammar School and Birmingham University from which he graduated B.Sc. (with hons.); he is also Ph.D and D.Sc. From 1939–45 he was a lecturer in chemistry at Birbeck College, University of London. During the Second World War he was director of the Ministry of Supply research team at Birmingham University, and from 1945–47 he held an I.C.I. research fellowship at Birmingham University. At this time he went to New Zealand to become professor and head of the department of chemistry at Auckland University, but in 1955 Canterbury University made him vice-chancellor and rector. In 1959 he became a member of the Council for Technical Education and in 1960 was appointed chairman of the New Zealand National Council of Adult Education. In July of that year he was appointed chairman of the University Grants Committee, and in 1962, chairman of the newly constituted New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation. In May 1964 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of New Zealand. In 1965 he was appointed vice-chancellor of Exeter University, Devon.

Until recently Anthoceros and its allied genera were classed with the Hepaticae. The gametophyte is thalloid, usually dark green and multilayered, but the tissues are not differentiated. The life-history is the same as in Hepaticopsida, with the archegonia and antheridia sunk in the tissues of the thallus; the sporophyte consists of a foot, an intermediate growing region, and a long, cylindrical capsule with a central columella. The capsule, indeterminate in length, is brown or blackish and splits along the side to liberate the spores.

The New Zealand genera Anthoceros, Phaeoceros, Megaceros, and Dendroceros are found throughout the world and are reputedly difficult of determination.

As yet no handbook of the New Zealand liverworts has been compiled, but in addition to the early literature and Stephani's Species Hepaticarum there are papers in the Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand, and more recently R. M. Schuster has published the following important article: “Annotated Keys to the Genera of Antipodal Hepaticae with special reference to New Zealand and Tasmania”. Journal of the Haltori Botanical Laboratory, 26, 185–387 (July 1963).

by Eliza Amy Hodgson, F.L.S., F.R.S.N.Z., Amateur Botanist, Awamate R.D., Wairoa, Hawke's Bay.

Some 102 genera and 360 species have been found in New Zealand. Well-known cosmopolitan and sub-cosmopolitan genera of the leafy liverworts, such as Lophocolea, Chiloscyphus, Frullania, Radula, Plagiochila, Bazzania, Jamesoniella, Cephalozia, Acrobolbus, Isotachis, Adelanthus, and of the large family Lejeuneaceae, are well represented in New Zealand, while representatives of such northern genera as Anthelia, Marsupella, Jubula, Ptilidium, and Pedinophyllum have more recently been reported. The tropical genera, Schistochila, Acromastigum, Leptolejeunea, and Treubia, include New Zealand in their southern range, and genera exclusive or nearly so to the Southern Hemisphere, such as Marsupidium, Pachyglossa, Lepidolaena, Temnoma, Lembidium, Dendrolembidium, Balantiopsis, Triandrophyllum, and Lepicolea, are by no means lacking.

The widespread genus Lepidozia, as originally constituted, has been subdivided into at least six smaller genera of which we have Lepidozia, Telaranea, Lepidoziopsis, Microlepidozia, and Drucella. The trend is now to streamline all genera whenever possible by creating segregates that are smaller and more sharply defined. But on the other hand the unwieldy family of Lejeuneaceae is being simplified by reduction of genera.

Goebeliella is a distinguished genus, with one species not uncommon throughout New Zealand and also in the Auckland Islands; Goebelobryum, which may be endemic, revels in the peat of the Waikato.

Of the thalloid genera, New Zealand has its share. The universal Metzgeria and Riccardia, on trees and damp earth respectively, are here in plenty. The widespread Pallavicinea, the tropical and southern Symphyogyna, and the rarer southern Hymenophytum, whether dendroid or narrow fronded, alike enjoy the shade and humus of the bush. Marchantia and also Lunularia, which is possibly introduced, flourish by streams and gorges and even on shady garden paths, and the less common but more or less worldwide Reboulia, Plagiochasma, and Asterella, also with sporophyte borne on stalked receptacles, reward the searcher with their green and purple colourings; and Targionia, first noted by Linnaeus, which encloses its sporophyte in two terminal blackish scales. Wet banks clothed with the large deep-green Monoclea, known also in Chile, unfailingly attract attention, whilst Neohodgsonia, another distinctive plant, still survives in New Zealand and Tristan da Cunha.

Both the leafy “plant” and the thalloid “plant” are the sexual or gametophyte generation of the life cycle. They both produce the sexual organs on some part of their surface. The female organs or archegonia are flask-shaped structures containing the embryo cell. In the leafy plants they are formed at the apex of a stem or branch-arresting growth. In the frondose group they are produced on or somewhat below the surface of the thallus, or on special combinations such as a stalked receptacle. The male organs are the spermatozoids, which are released from oval or globose, stalked or sessile bodies called antheridia. They may or may not be on the same plant as the archegonia. When the embryo cell is fertilised, the development of the second half of the life cycle, the sporophyte, at once begins. The basal part which penetrates the host to obtain nourishment is called the foot. The upper portion develops into a capsule, which produces spores internally. Protected usually by two envelopes, the inner one, the calyptra, being always present, the capsule ripens and erupts through the calyptra (this being the main difference from the mosses) to scatter the spores, either by splitting downwards into four valves or by bursting irregularly. In the foliose plants and Metzgeriales of the thalloids, the capsule usually possesses a delicate, elongate, hyaline stalk called the seta; as Hooker writes: “slender, white, cellular fruit-stalks, surmounted by 4 little brown radiating arms (valves) placed crosswise”. A variously shaped assemblage of cells, developed from the germinating spore, then gives rise to the gametophyte, and the cycle begins again.

Asexual reproduction by way of small detachable gemmae is commonly met with. It has even been suggested that, in course of time, gemmae may replace the sporophytes as a means of propagation.

Hepatics are primarily divided into two groups, the leafy or foliose, and the thalloid or frondose. Owing to the phenomenon known as the alternation of generations, the liverwort “plants”, as they are usually seen and recognised, exhibit only one half of the life cycle of the organism. Briefly, the foliose hepatics are mosslike plants with a stem and leaves, and usually a third row of leaves on the under surface of the stem. The stems do not have woody fibres or vascular tissue, but there is a cortex and medulla. The variations in these and in the pattern of branching play a part in formulating genera. Unlike those of the mosses, the leaves are without a midrib and are often bilobed. The size and colour of the leafy hepatics vary considerably from minute terrestrial plants to large cushions or masses of creeping or pendulous leafy stems, in light or dark shades of green and brown or even in tones of rose.

The thalloid hepatics, less numerous than the foliose, consist of a thallus, a plant body not differentiated into stem and leaves, but flat and more or less broad. The thallus may be multi-layered, as in the order Marchantiales, or one-layered, as in Metzgeriales. “Rootlets”, called rhizoids (also common to the foliose hepatics), help to attach the thallus to the ground or substratum on which it grows.

There are at least three genera, Fossombronia, Noteroclada, and Treubia, which are intermediate between the foliose and frondose groups in that a more or less thalloid axis has lobes or leaflike appendages.

The group of plants popularly known as liverworts comprise the first two of the following three classes of the division Bryophyta (bryophytes):

• Class I HEPATICOPSIDA (Hepaticae).

• Class II ANTHOCEROTOPSIDA (Anthocerotae).

• Class III BRYOPSIDA (Musci or mosses).

In New Zealand there are, on the whole, fewer liverworts than mosses, though in very wet places, such as Fiordland and the southern part of Stewart Island, liverworts may predominate, both in terrestrial and in arboreal situations. They grow luxuriantly in wet areas and, with the mosses, form a feature of the rain forest. Mosses and liverworts are botanically distinct, the liverworts having a greater variety in their vegetative organs and in the disposition of the sporophytes. As in the mosses, the life cycle of the liverworts involves a well marked alternation of generations. The gametophyte or sexual generation bears the organs of reproduction which produce the sporophyte or the asexual generation. This grows out of the gametophyte, or “plant” as we know it, and draws sustenance from it. The sporophyte in its turn develops spores which may “germinate” into a small intermediate short-lived structure called the protonema, which gives rise to the gametophyte or “plant”, and thus completes the cycle.