Early in 1920 the nucleus staff under the directorship of Professor T. H. (later Sir Thomas) Easterfield was appointed and projects were planned. The work of the Institute was organised in three science departments, dealing respectively with insect pests, fungus diseases, and agricultural chemical problems. In addition a technical museum was established. In 1941 the Agricultural and Chemistry Department was subdivided into soils and agriculture on the one hand and biochemistry on the other. There was no further change in organisation until 1956, when because of the transfer of some of Cawthron's activities to Government Departments, it was decided to concentrate the Institute's research activities on plant nutrition, including soil problems. Opportunity was taken at this stage in the history of the Institute to reorganise the museum with a view to the more effective illustration of the agricultural and mineral resources of the Nelson district.

The work of the Institute over the past 40 years has been marked by many striking successes. In the early period, the introduction of Aphelinus mail to combat woolly aphis of apple trees, the elucidation of the life history of the black spot fungus of apples, the determination of the fertiliser requirements of the Moutere Hills and of other soils, and the identification of the major causes of apple storage defects were of great value not only to the apple industry of Nelson but to fruit culture throughout New Zealand. These splendid results roused the interest of farmers in every part of New Zealand and stimulated the prosecution of research by Government Departments.

Among the many important investigations carried out by the Institute during the past 40 years may be mentioned the establishment of systematic soil surveys; the identification of a sheep ailment at Glenhope, Nelson, and of a lamb ailment at Morton Mains, Southland, as cobalt deficiencies; the identification of boron deficiency in several crops in the Nelson district; the determination of boron contents of soils and crops in important fruitgrowing districts in both North and South Islands; the identification of magnesium deficiency in apple orchards of the Nelson district and the elaboration of control techniques; the chemistry of tobacco, hops, and fruit; the control of “hard core” and “cloud” of tomatoes; the parasitic control of insect pests, e.g., control of woolly aphis by Aphelinus mail; golden oak scale by Haberolepsis dalmani and the horntail borer by Rhyssa persuasoria; the biological control of noxious weeds, e.g., Apion ulicis for the control of gorse seed and Chrysolina hyperici for the control of St. John's Wort; and the identification and control of many fungus diseases attacking fruit, tobacco, hops, and market-garden crops in the Nelson district. All the investigations enumerated above have been of great value to the development of the agricultural industries of Nelson and of New Zealand.

During the 40 years since the establishment of the Institute there have been four directors: Sir Thomas H. Easterfield, 1919–33; Sir T. Rigg(q.v.), 1934–56; Dr D. Miller, 1956–59, and the present director, Dr C. R. Barnicoat. The Institute has benefited from the services of a number of outstanding officers among whom may be mentioned Dr R. J. Tillyard, assistant director and chief biologist; Dr K. M. Curtis, chief mycologist; Dr H. O. Askew, assistant director and chief biochemist; Dr J. K. Dixon, soil chemist; Dr E. B. Kidson, soil and plant chemist; and W. C. Davies, curator and photographer. During the 40 years of work some 550 scientific papers, bulletins, and monographs have been published by members of the staff. In addition, many progress reports and newspaper articles have been written for the general public. The achievements of the Institute have not depended solely on the results of scientific research. Of almost equal importance has been the great influence, particularly in the early years, of the Institute on farmers and the general public throughout New Zealand.

The success of the Institute stimulated scientific research both in Government and in farming circles and has brought about an enhanced appreciation of scientific research by the general public.

by Theodore Rigg, K.B.E., M.A.(CANTAB.), M.SC.(N.Z.), F.R.I.C., F.R.S.N.Z., HON.D.SC.(W. AUST. AND N.Z.), formerly Director, Cawthron Institute, Nelson.

The Cawthron Institute, of Nelson, New Zealand, owes its origin to the munificence of Thomas Cawthron, successful business man of Nelson, who left the residue of his estate valued at £240,000 for the establishment of an “Industrial, Technical School Institute and Museum”, to be named Cawthron Institute.

According to F. G. Gibbs, who acted as honorary secretary to Thomas Cawthron in the latter's benefactions to Nelson, the suggestion of a technical institute came from the late J. H. Cock. His advice was sought by Thomas Cawthron concerning the best method of encouraging and developing industry in New Zealand. Cock, who was acquainted with the magnificent work of technological institutes in the United States and Great Britain, suggested that the establishment of a similar institute would be of great value in the development of industry in Nelson and New Zealand. Apparently Thomas Cawthron was attracted by the suggestion, and his thoughts in this direction were crystallised during an overseas visit to the U.S. and Great Britain in 1902. As a result he drew up in London a holograph will bequeathing the major part of his fortune to the establishment of the Cawthron Institute. Although on his return to Nelson he became interested in other projects, particularly the establishment of a solar observatory, no finality had been reached concerning the solar observatory at the time of his decease. Consequently his holograph will, the details of which had not been communicated to his friends, became effective and the solar observatory project had to be abandoned.

The original trustees appointed under Cawthron's will were in a quandary concerning the exact wishes of Thomas Cawthron and sought the advice of an advisory committee of scientists under the chairmanship of Sir James G. Wilson. After due consideration and consultation with the Cawthron trustees, the advisory committee recommended that the principal objective of the projected Cawthron Institute should be the conduct of scientific research into the problems of the primary industries of New Zealand with particular reference to those of the Nelson district. It was recognised by the advisory committee that a technical museum of an industrial character must form a part of the Institute. The Cawthron trustees adopted the recommendations of their advisory committee, and in due course the main proposal of the committee for the conduct of scientific research for the benefit of the primary industries of New Zealand was approved by the Supreme Court.

(1833–1915).

Businessman, philanthropist, and founder of the Cawthron Institute.

A new biography of Cawthron, Thomas appears in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography on this site.

Thomas Cawthron was born at Newington, Surrey, on 25 May 1833, the son of James Cawthron, of Camberwell Road, Newington. He received a good education at Hoxton School and was 15 years old when his parents and family set out for Nelson in 1849 in the ship Mary.

It is probable that this branch of the Cawthron family is descended from the Cawthrons or Cawthrones (both names appear in records of 1647) who lived in the township of Cawthrone, a suburb of Barnsley, Yorks. Thomas assisted his father in farming at Richmond but finding that the work was too heavy for his physical strength, he obtained clerical work with W. B. Rhodes in Wellington, who was a distant relative.

In 1852 the gold discoveries in Australia excited his interest and he decided to try his fortune on the goldfields. He worked for several years as a contractor for miscellaneous goods on the goldfields of Bendigo and Ballarat. In 1857, on receiving news that his father had met with a serious accident, Thomas returned to Nelson on a visit. He found conditions congenial and, with the wish to assist his parents, decided to remain in Nelson. No doubt his experience on the goldfields of Australia directed his attention to mining ventures in the vicinity of Nelson. He became a contractor for food and miscellaneous stores for the Jenkins Hill coal mine and for the copper-mining projects on the Mineral Belt country near the Dun Mountain. He was now a strong, physically fit man and he was able to cope with the hardships which were involved in delivery of supplies to miners in the rough Mineral Belt country, some 8 to 10 miles by a mountainous track from Nelson. In March 1859 he accepted the agency of the Panama Royal Mail Steamship Co. and also acted as agent for the U.S.S. Co. of New Zealand. For a period of 30 years he controlled practically the whole of the maritime shipping from the Port of Nelson, which at that time was a busy port. In addition to the work of the shipping agencies, he did a great deal of business on his own account. Everything that he touched seemed to turn to gold. Later on, the investment of his money became an increasing responsibility. He was a shrewd and successful business man who was favoured with good fortune in all his business transactions. By the time of his retirement from active business in the late eighties he had amassed a considerable fortune – the amount of which was known to no one but himself.

After his retirement he lived quietly in a very frugal manner at his home in Examiner Street with his sister Mrs M. Wright. Outwardly he seemed to have few interests other than the investment and care of his money. This, however, was not really the case for unknown to the general public he had been active in helping individual cases of hardship and distress in Nelson city. It was only in the latter years of his life that he was emboldened to come before the public as a generous benefactor of Nelson City. He discussed different projects for the advancement of the city with several intimate friends of whom J. H. Cock and F. G. Gibbs deserve special mention.

The following list shows his more important benefactions to Nelson during his lifetime:

(1) A site for the Anglican Sunday School in Toitoi Valley. (2) A sum of £15,000 towards the cost of a new general hospital – conditional on a Government subsidy of like amount – and a sum of £1,000 towards the cost of the new nurses' home. (3) A gift of 2,500 acres of mainly forested country adjacent to Wooded Peak in the headwaters of the Maitai River. This has been named Cawthron Park. (4) The Cawthron organ in the School of Music and a sum of £2,000 for paying off the debt on the building. (5) A gift of money to the Nelson Institute for the purchase of the Lukins collection of Maori artefacts and the sum of £800 for showcases and museum fittings. (6) The magnificent flight of granite steps and platforms, leading from Trafalgar Street to Nelson Cathedral. (7) The iron chains and pillars on the seafront at Wakefield Quay and Rocks Road as far as Tahunanui. (8) The purchase of Observatory Park on the Port Hills as the first step in the establishment of a solar observatory. Unfortunately the trust deed for this project was not signed before Cawthron's decease and the project had to be abandoned, the park falling into the hands of the trustees appointed under the terms of his will.

It can be seen from a study of these benefactions that they were all well-conceived and of great value to the city of Nelson. The religious instruction of children, amenities for the sick, the preservation of native bush, the provision of recreational facilities for trampers and those interested in the unique geological and botanical features of the “Mineral Belt” country, the beautification of the city, and the promotion of cultural amenities are all included in his benefactions. It can be said with truth that his money was wisely spent in enduring monuments to his generosity. Although great credit must be given to Thomas Cawthron in the decisions which he made for benefiting the city, great praise is due to his advisers, particularly to F. G. Gibbs who, as honorary secretary to Thomas Cawthron, carried a great burden of responsibility in working out the details of many benefactions.

There can be little doubt that, if Thomas Cawthron had survived another six months, a large sum of money would have been earmarked for the establishment of the solar observatory in which he was very interested. He planned to donate sums up to £60,000 if necessary for the erection and maintenance of the observatory. Despite the strenuous efforts of F. G. Gibbs to complete the details of the project, the death of Thomas Cawthron on 8 October 1915 intervened before his signature of the trust deed was effected. He left no recent will. It was a holograph will signed and attested in London in 1902 that became effective on his death. By the terms of this will he left practically the whole of his estate, valued at £240,000, for the establishment and maintenance of a technical school institute and museum, the whole to be known as the Cawthron Institute.

Contrary to the general belief, Cawthron was generous hearted in cases of acute distress and need, but his kindness in such cases was not generally known to the public. His benefactions showed a fine sense of true citizenship. They were well-conceived and the details fully arranged before any announcement of his proposed benefactions was made. His major benefaction, the establishment of the Cawthron Institute, is an enduring and magnificent monument to his memory. Its establishment was not only of great value to agriculture but it also stimulated scientific research throughout the whole of New Zealand.

by Theodore Rigg, K.B.E., M.A.(CANTAB.), M.SC.(N.Z.), F.R.I.C., F.R.S.N.Z., HON.D.SC.(W. AUST. AND N.Z.), formerly Director, Cawthron Institute, Nelson.

• Cawthron Institute Records (MSS)
• F. G. Gibbs (MSS), Cawthron Institute, Nelson.

Caves are natural underground spaces, commonly those into which man can enter. There are three major types: the most widespread and extensive are those developed in soluble rocks, usually limestone or marble, by underground movement of water; on the coast are those formed in cliffs generally by the concentrated pounding of waves along joints and zones of crushed rock; and a few caves are formed in lava flows, where the solidified outer crust is left after the molten core has drained away to form rough tunnels, like those on the small basalt volcanoes of Auckland.

Karst topography is typical limestone landscape characterised by high cliffs, grotesque rock outcrops, no familiar pattern of ridges and valleys, funnelshaped basins to which the Maori word tomo is applied, and few surface streams. Because of its extremely rugged, waterless nature, karst country in New Zealand is frequently in dense native bush.

Limestone of all ages, ranging from geologically recent times to more than 450 million years ago, is found in many parts of New Zealand, although it is not all cavernous. Many caves have been discovered, but hundreds still remain to be explored. The most notable limestone areas for caves are the many hundreds of square miles of Te Kuiti Group (Oligocene) rocks from Port Waikato south to Mokau and from the coast inland to the Waipa Valley – especially in the Waitomo district; and the Mount Arthur Marble (upper Ordovician) of the mountains of north-west Nelson (fringed by thin bands of Oligocene limestone in the valleys and near the coast).

Sedimentary rocks (including limestone) are usually laid down in almost horizontal layers or beds which may be of any thickness, but most commonly of 2–3 in. These beds may accumulate to a total thickness of several hundreds of feet. Pure limestone is brittle, and folding due to earth movements causes cracks along the partings, and joints at angles to them. Rain water percolates down through the soil and the fractures in the underlying rocks to the water table, below which all cavities and pores are filled with water. This water, which is usually acidic, dissolves the limestone along the joints and, once a passage is opened, it is enlarged by the abrasive action of sand and pebbles carried by streams. Extensive solution takes place between the seasonal limits of the water table. Erosion may continue to cut down into the floor, or silt and pebbles may build up floors and divert stream courses. Most caves still carry the stream that formed them.

Caves in the softer, well-bedded Oligocene limestones are typically horizontal in development, often with passages on several levels, and frequently of considerable length. Gardner's Gut, Waitomo, has two main levels and more than 4½ miles of passages. Plans of caves show prominent features, such as long, narrow, straight passages following joint patterns as in Ruakuri, Waitomo, or a number of parallel straights oriented in one or more directions like Te Anaroa, Rockville. Vertical cross sections of cave passages may be tall and narrow following joints, as in Burr Cave, Waitomo; large and ragged in collapse chambers, like Hollow Hill, Waitomo (255 yd long, 65 yd wide, and 100 ft high); low and wide along bedding planes, as in Luckie Strike, Waitomo; or high vertical water-worn shafts, like Rangitaawa Shaft (300 ft), Waitomo. Caves in the harder, massive Mount Arthur Marble (a metamorphosed limestone) are mainly vertical in development, many reaching several hundreds of feet, the deepest known being Harwood Hole, Takaka (1,215 ft).

The unique beauty of caves lies in the variety of mineral encrustations which are found sometimes completely covering walls, ceiling, and floor. Stalactites (Gk. stalaktos, dripping) are pendent growths of crystalline calcium carbonate (calcite) formed from solution by the deposition of minute quantities of calcite from percolating ground water. They are usually white to yellow in colour, but occasionally are brown or red. Where water evaporates faster than it drips, long thin straws are formed which may reach the floor or thicken into columns. If the source of water moves across the ceiling, a thin drape, very like a stage curtain, is formed. Helictites are stalactites that branch or curl. Stalagmites (Gk. stalagmos, that which dripped) are conical or gnarled floor growths formed by splashing, if the water drips faster than it evaporates. These may grow toward the ceiling to form columns of massive proportions. Where calcite is deposited by water spreading thinly over the walls or floor, flowstone is formed and pools of water may build up their edges to form narrow walls of rimstone. Gypsum (calcium sulphate) is a white cave deposit of many crystal habits which are probably dependent on humidity. The most beautiful form is the gypsum flower which extrudes from a point on the cave wall in curling and diverging bundles of fibres like a lily or orchid.

The best known cave inhabitants are glow worms, which are larvae or grubs that later develop into rarely seen small flies. Glow worms, almost transparent and having luminous tail portions, are sometimes found in small numbers in bush gullies or under banks, but above quietly flowing underground streams not far from cave entrances they are to be seen in tens of thousands. Other common cave dwellers are cave wetas (crickets), with long legs and very long antennae. Although extremely agile, they are not as ferocious in appearance as their bush relations and are quite harmless.

by Leslie Owen Kermode, B.A., Geological Survey Station, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Otahuhu.

(Lunella smaragda).

This is the best known of all our shellfish of the inter-tidal rocks. It feeds on seaweeds and lives in the mid-tidal belt of the grape seaweed, Hormosira. It grows to over 2 in. in diameter, and the circular greenish operculum, the cat's eye, which closes the aperture, is its most conspicuous feature. The Maori name is ataata.

by Arthur William Baden Powell, Assistant Director, Auckland Institute and Museum.

(Wiseana spp.).

The larval stages of the moths commonly called porina moths (after the earlier generic name Porina) are important pasture pests in New Zealand. They live in tunnels in the soil during the day and feed at night at the surface of the soil on grass foliage. The damage done by them to pastures is comparable to that caused by the grass grub. Like the grass grubs, the subterranean grass caterpillars have adapted themselves very successfully to the introduced grasses which now dominate the grasslands of New Zealand. The life cycle is an annual one. Eggs are deposited on grasses in October to January, and the caterpillars are active from December to September. Adults appear in October to January. They do not damage plants but are attracted to light in great numbers and, in the South Island particularly, are a predominant feature of the insect life of early summer. Control is successfully carried out by the application of insecticides to the pastures. Many species of grass caterpillars are known, but only two or three are of importance as pasture pests. Other species are particularly prone to attack by the fungus Cordyceps. The caterpillars are attacked in the ground and, when all the caterpillar tissue is replaced by the fungus, a spore-bearing stalk is produced and protrudes above the ground. In this state the organism is called a vegetable caterpillar.

by Roy Alexander Harrison, D.SC., Senior Lecturer in Agricultural Zoology, Lincoln Agricultural College.

(1817–95).

Pioneer surveyor.

Thomas Cass was born in Yorkshire in 1817 and educated at Christ's Hospital where he was in the Royal Mathematical Foundation for four years. He then went to sea and served in the East India trade. After three years he gave this up and studied architecture and surveying, and on qualifying was employed as an assistant in the Tithe Commission Office, Somerset House. The newly founded colony of New Zealand attracted him and he obtained the post of assistant surveyor with the New Zealand Company. The Prince Rupert, in which he left England, was wrecked at the Cape of Good Hope, and with it went most of his belongings. He continued his voyage in the Antilla, reaching Auckland in December 1841. He was employed in laying out part of the city of Auckland, at the Bay of Islands, and to the northward where he surveyed the town of Kororareka and prospected road lines to Hokianga and Whangaroa. He then surveyed the north shore of Auckland and after that was again at the Bay of Islands until late in 1844 when the New Zealand Company discharged him owing to the reduction of the survey department. It was then that his service at sea stood him in good stead. He became second, later chief, mate of the Government brig Victoria and was present at the destruction of Kororareka in 1845, and at the operations against Te Rauparaha in Cook Strait in 1846. Other adventures included the transport in custody from Otago to Wellington of Langlands and Davis, two of Canterbury's first bushrangers who had robbed the Greenwoods at Purau in 1845.

In 1847 Cass returned to England to press his claim for compensation for the loss of his position as surveyor. The formation of the Canterbury Association led, in July 1848, to the dispatch of an advance party under Captain Joseph Thomas, with Cass and Torlesse as assistant surveyors, to select a site for the proposed Church of England settlement. They sailed in the Bernicia, reached Wellington in November, hired a cutter, the Fly, and with William Fox, the New Zealand Company's agent, and five survey, hands proceeded to Port Cooper, landing at Purau on 15 December. Cass began by making the first detailed survey of Lyttelton Harbour, previously roughly charted by M. Fournier of the French corvette Heroine. When the site for the Canterbury settlement had been decided, he made the first trigonometrical survey of the Christchurch district preparatory to the laying off of the town itself. He next surveyed the Lincoln and Ellesmere districts. In January 1851, on Captain Thomas's precipitate departure, he became Chief Surveyor in Canterbury, a position which he held until March 1867 when he retired on account of his health – he suffered from chronic asthma. He played a prominent part in the life of the young community. In 1853 with Sewell and the Rev. R. B. Paul, he fixed the site of Christ's College. He was one of the members of the first Provincial Council of 1857. He was in the Executive Council under Moorhouse and again under Bealey. For 10 years he was a member of the Canterbury Waste Lands Board, and served on various commissions connected with the development of communications in the province.

In 1867 he revisited England and succeeded Crosbie Ward as immigration agent for Canterbury. While he was there, Samuel Butler painted a portrait of him which is now in the Canterbury museum. Cass returned to Christchurch in 1868. He was a member of the Church of England and served as churchwarden at St. Michael's. He married the widow of David Theodore Williams in 1856. They had no family and after his wife's death in 1885, he lived very quietly with his stepson, C. Hood-Williams, until his death in Christchurch on 17 April 1895.

Cass filled the post of Chief Surveyor with distinction, and brought to the deliberations of the various bodies of which he was a member a profound knowledge of the province. He was a delightful character, known affectionately to all as Tommy, and noted for his benevolence. His name is perpetuated in a township, a river, a bay, and a Banks Peninsula peak.

by Peter Bromley Maling, G.M., M.SC.(N.Z.), M.B., B.S. (LOND.), M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., Medical Practitioner and Author, Christchurch.

• The Torlesse Papers (ed.) Maling, P. B. (1958)

(Tonna haurakiensis).

This fish has a large frail shell, strongly corrugated. It grows up to 9 in. in height and has a very large aperture. Occasionally these shellfish wash up alive on Northland beaches, but they live in from five to 50 fm on sandy or muddy bottom. These shells are more characteristic of warmer seas, and our species, which is closely allied to an Eastern Australian one, undoubtedly reached here per medium of the East Australian warm-water current.

by Arthur William Baden Powell, Assistant Director, Auckland Institute and Museum.

In spite of the exodus of talent from the early years of this century, cartooning in New Zealand has developed steadily from the joke block and cartoon pure and simple of the provincial Punch days to the sophisticated modern style exemplified by the work of Gordon Minhinnick, of New Zealand Herald, Neville Lodge, of the Evening Post, and A. S. Paterson, for many years cartoonist for the Dominion. Today Minhinnick is the doyen of New Zealand black and white artists, and his cartoons are known from end to end of the Dominion. Permanently attached to the New Zealand Herald in Auckland, he has had much of his work syndicated, thus gaining the widest circulation. His strong points are strength of line and an irresistible humour. He is essentially the cartoonist, but at the same time he possesses the delightful detachment necessary for the practice of personal caricature. He has an immense fertility of ideas, and in the political field, despite a fierce opposition to socialism which is personal, he moves rapidly and fairly to the essence of his subject, and his explanatory texts display an economy of words which gives point to the whole of his humour.

Neville Lodge is also very much the cartoonist, with a strong leaning towards the joke block style and a restricted caricature type. But his ideas are admirably presented and they cover a deliciously wide field of topical allusion and humour. He has a less direct approach than Minhinnick and, if he scratches at all, it is never to draw blood. The bold line of his draughtsmanship is in keeping with the breadth of his humour.

A. S. Paterson, like Minhinnick, is an artist who could have reached a large public abroad, but there the similarity ceases. In his work for the Dominion he favoured the sequence of thumb-nail drawings to convey his ideas, but he possesses a broad versatility as well. His interpretation of Maori history and Maori legends was a thing of delicate outlines and informed understanding. He was born in Hawera in 1902 and has published several collections of his work. More recently, N. M. Colvin, Evening Post, Wellington, and W. E. Waite, Otago Daily Times, Dunedin, came rapidly to the fore in the post-war world as cartoonists of decided promise, their work showing both wit and talent. They have now moved on to London where they are unquestionably in the forefront of contemporary cartoonists.

While it is impracticable to make detailed reference to all the cartoonists and joke block artists who have made their mark in the past half century, it is essential that credit should be given to two New Zealand publications which, by providing remunerative rates and setting reasonable standards, greatly assisted black and white artists in this country after the exodus. These were the New Zealand edition of Aussie which appeared first in 1923 and lasted seven years, and the New Zealand Artists Annual, which under the editorship of Pat Lawlor, of Wellington, was in recent years one of the greatest influences of all. In it both professional and amateur artists were encouraged, and in the three years of its existence after 1929 it had the support and patronage of Low, Finey, White, Rountree, and others of the Dominion's expatriates whose names were by then things to be conjured with abroad. When the Annual failed, a victim of the depression in the thirties, it remained an invaluable record of the work of New Zealand cartoons and cartoonists.

The great pity is that, in the years that have followed, syndicated imported material with a strong American influence – the Strips and Comics – have to a large degree supplanted the daily cartoon. Some undoubtedly have a reader appeal, but with neither roots nor relevance as far as New Zealand is concerned they are an inadequate substitute for the locally produced article which is now almost rare.

by Ronald Jones, Journalist and Script Writer, New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation, Wellington.

The political cartoon as it is known today and the art of personal caricature had to await the turn of the century and the inspiration of a select group of young men. At the head of these was young David Low, of Christchurch, one of the greatest black and white artists of his time. But there were others such as Fred Hiscock (politics and the liquor question); Harry Rountree; the Auckland trio, George Finey, Unk White, and G. K. Townshend; R. W. Coulter (Christchurch); John Gilmour (Wellington); George Prain (Dunedin); Stuart Peterson (born in Melbourne); T. E. Glover (who came from London as a youth); F. Blomfield (“Blo” of the Auckland Observer); and Trevor Lloyd (of the Weekly News, Auckland).

It was ironical that such a sudden flowering of talent should occur at a time when the market for black and white drawing was extremely limited. Low as a youth was earning odd shillings, and some of his contemporaries were unable to find any sort of vehicle of expression at all. The inevitable happened. The Bulletin beckoned from across the Tasman. Low had already secured a footing there, and Finey, Townshend, and White were becoming known. Soon the trek began. David Low left in 1910 for Sydney after a brief period with the Spectator and the wavering Canterbury Times in Christchurch. Several others, of the best of their kind, having concluded an uneasy apprenticeship, went the same way, some of them, like Low, making Australia only a stepping stone to London. Harry Rountree found fame on Punch in London and George Finey went to outstanding success on Smith's Weekly and the Labour Daily, after a period with the New Zealand Herald in Auckland. Unk White, and with him G. K. Townshend, moved off to the Bulletin, Smith's Weekly, and Aussie, and Stuart Peterson left the Free Lance in Wellington for Sydney. John Gilmour, of New Zealand Truth and the New Zealand Times, went to London, and Tom Glover became cartoonist to the Sydney Sun, a position in which he was succeeded on his death by Stuart Peterson.

Perhaps one of the most intriguing contributions of the thirties to cartooning in New Zealand was the political publication Tomorrow, a strongly Socialist production, quick in opinion, often violent, but always consistent in its aims. Its content lent itself admirably to cartooning and caricature, but in the few years of its existence, from 1933 to 1939, its guiding genius, Andrew Kennaway Henderson, regarded its cartoons as his own particular demesne. This policy lent a peculiar distinction to the publication, since in all his black and white work Kennaway contrived to apply a form of draughtsmanship popular in the nineties to the problems and situations of the early thirties. Henderson, who signed his work Kennaway, died in 1960