Christchurch, largest city in the South Island, is situated on the coastal margins of the vast alluvial-built Canterbury Plains at the base of the Port Hills, which divide the city and the plains from Lyttelton Harbour and Banks Peninsula. The peninsula was once a group of volcanoes, which have since become extinct and have been intruded by the sea, forming many inlets, including Lyttelton Harbour and Akaroa Harbour. The great outpourings of gravel from the Southern Alps gradually linked up with this bastion to create a peninsula, on the neck of which Christchurch is built. Stretching away in a wide sweep to the north are the sandy Pacific beaches along Pegasus Bay, while to the south shingly beaches extend for more than 100 miles. A backdrop to the city's environs is provided by the majestic Southern Alps, rising some 30 miles inland, which exert a strong influence on the climate of the Canterbury region.

(c. 1830–1920)

Merchant.

A new biography of Chew Chong appears in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography on this site.

Chew Chong was born in China in 1830. He attended school there and then worked for 10 years as a household servant in Singapore. In 1855 he came to Victoria where he spent 11 years on the goldfields, mining and storekeeping. The Otago gold rush induced Chew Chong to come to New Zealand in 1866. After two years in Dunedin, he began travelling through the country buying up old metal for export to China. During these journeys Chew Chong discovered an edible fungus in Taranaki which was growing profusely on recently burned decaying logs. It was similar in taste to a Chinese plant which was highly prized as a delicacy and used also for medicinal purposes. Chew Chong offered to buy this fungus at 2d. per pound. He made his headquarters in New Plymouth where in 1870 he opened a store. The fungus cost nothing to produce and was easily collected. It was spread out to dry and then packed into flax baskets or jute bags and brought into Chew Chong's store on market days. From New Plymouth it was sent to Dunedin and thence shipped to China by local Chinese merchants. Between 1872 and 1882 more than 1,700 tons of this “Taranaki Wool” were exported from New Zealand, to the value of over £78,000. The sale of fungus saved many Taranaki dairy farmers, for they sold their butter to the local store in exchange for goods, and fungus was their only source of ready cash, apart from bush-felling or road-building contracts.

Chew Chong bought butter, too. He opened branches of his store in Inglewood and Eltham and, in 1885, sent two kegs of Eltham butter to England. He lost money on this venture but it has been claimed that this trial shipment marked the beginning of New Zealand's flourishing dairy-export industry. In December 1887 Chew Chong opened a dairy factory at Eltham, near the Waingongoro River bridge. It was named the “Jubilee Dairy Factory” and the word “Jubilee” was registered as the brand name. The equipment was first class, including two Danish cream separators, and at the Dunedin Exhibition of 1889, Chew Chong won the coveted silver cup for the best half ton of butter packed suitably for export.

For some years Chew Chong also owned the Mangatoki Dairy Factory and was a shareholder in the Egmont Cooperative Box Co. He was, in fact, the dominating influence in the South Taranaki dairy industry in the late eighties and early nineties. Soon, however, he had to face competition. A cooperative dairy factory opened at Eltham in June 1892, backed by the Bank of New South Wales. Chew Chong had to pay high prices to retain his suppliers. He struggled on for some years but, in 1901, he had to close the Jubilee factory and his three creameries which were sold at a heavy loss.

Chew Chong retired from business and returned to live in New Plymouth where he died on 7 October 1920, a highly respected local citizen. An illuminated address which was presented to him a few years before his death expressed the appreciation of the settlers for the enterprise he had shown as a pioneer of the dairy industry in Taranaki.

On 16 February 1875, at Te Henui, Chew Chong married Elizabeth Whatton, daughter of a Taranaki settler, and by her he had three sons and four daughters.

by Herbert Otto Roth, B.A., DIP.N.Z.L.S., Deputy Librarian, University of Auckland.

• A History of the New Zealand Dairy Industry, 1840–1935, Philpott, H. G. (1937).

(Sypharochiton pellisserpentis).

This shellfish is typical of a separate class of molluscs which stands uniformly distinct from all other groups. The shell is always composed of eight movable pieces fastened together by muscles and a surrounding leathery girdle, which is often studded with scales. Variation in the number of valves of the shell is not unknown, but such can always be traced to some injury. Chitons are vegetarian feeders, but spend most of their time fastened to rock by suction. About 60 New Zealand species are known, but many of them are very rare. One species, Cryptoconchus porosus, has beautiful greenish-blue internal valves. These are the “butterflies” so keenly sought by amateur collectors. Many chitons have interesting composite eyes which are actually studded as tiny pinpoints on the outer surface of the shelly valves. Our largest chiton grows to 4½ in. in length.

by Arthur William Baden Powell, Assistant Director, Auckland Institute and Museum.

(1860–1929).

Scientist and educationalist.

A new biography of Chilton, Charles appears in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography on this site.

Charles Chilton, the son of Thomas Chilton, was born in Leominster, Hereford, on 27 September 1860. He came to New Zealand in 1861 with his parents who finally settled on a farm at East Eyreton in North Canterbury. At an early age he suffered from hip trouble which led to amputation. Despite this handicap he was able to get about freely and actively all his life and was quite at home over rough country. Although originally destined for a life on the land, he early showed signs of scholarship and was sent to West Christchurch District School and was for some years a pupil teacher. West Christchurch had some good masters – among them Charles Cook and T. S. Foster – and in later years he spoke of his good training there. Early in life he was impressed with the fact that teaching was an art. He entered Canterbury College in 1875 as an unmatriculated student, studied there for three years and matriculated in 1878. He won a junior university scholarship in 1880 and gained his B.A. with an exhibition in natural science, and senior scholarships in English, physics, and natural science. In 1881 he gained his M.A. with first-class honours in zoology. At this time F. W. Hutton was professor of biology at Canterbury College and his inspiring teaching led Chilton to concentrate on biological study. Hutton advised him to specialise in the study of Crustacea, a group up to then comparatively neglected in New Zealand. Chilton got in touch with George M. Thomson, of Dunedin, who had also been advised to study Crustacea, and they collaborated in research and remained close friends.

In 1886 he was appointed to the Dunedin Training College, at the same time continuing his studies at the Otago University. In 1887 he took his B.Sc., being the first student of the University of New Zealand to gain this degree. In 1888 Chilton was appointed rector of Port Chalmers District High School. His spare time was given to the study of marine zoology in Otago Harbour, and in 1893 he gained a doctorate in science, again being the first to do so. Feeling that the field of marine zoology in New Zealand held no promise, Chilton decided to study medicine. In 1895 he entered on his medical studies at Edinburgh; he gained his M.B. and C.M. with honours and was also awarded the Aitken Carlyle scholarship. He specialised in ear, nose, and throat diseases and was appointed house surgeon in the ophthalmic ward at the Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh. In 1900 he studied diseases of the eye at Heidelberg, Vienna, and London, and in the following year he returned to Christchurch when he began practise as an ophthalmic surgeon.

At this time Dr Dendy was professor of biology at Canterbury College, and having a year's leave of absence, he persuaded the board to appoint Chilton as his locum tenens. When Dr Dendy accepted the post of professor of biology at King's College, London, the board appointed Chilton in his place. He occupied the chair of biology and palaentology till 1910, and from 1910 to 1928 continued in the chair of biology. In 1921 Chilton was appointed rector of Canterbury University College, this being the first appointment to such a post in any University College in New Zealand or Australia. In 1929 he was awarded the title of Professor Emeritus of Canterbury College. During his time the Canterbury mountain biological station at Mt. Cass was established and practical work in the field was started.

Chilton was a member of the committee of the West Christchurch District High School, of the Board of Governors of Canterbury Agricultural College, Lincoln, of which he was chairman in 1917. Dr Hilgendorf said of him: “I have never known a man who turned with such understanding and such effect to the young.”

Chilton's first scientific paper, Additions to New Zealand Crustacea, was read before the Canterbury Philosophical Institute on 13 October 1881. He contributed altogether 51 papers to transactions of the institute, besides many to foreign societies. He was president of the Canterbury Philosophical Institute in 1903, 1904, and 1914, and was a member of the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute in 1913–14 and president in 1917. He was awarded the Hector Memorial Medal for Researches in Zoology and, in 1926, the Hutton Memorial Medal for his researches in crustacea. He intended to bring together the fruits of his researches in a monograph and had just entered upon this task when he succumbed to a sudden attack of pneumonia and died on 25 October 1929. In 1888, Chilton married Elizabeth Jack, whom he had met at Dunedin Training College. Throughout their married lives she remained a great support and encouragement to him. Their son and only child was killed on Gallipoli in 1915. A second-year medical student, he was a lieutenant in the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders.

Chilton was much more than a mere learned man, a storehouse of facts. The warmth of his nature made him an inspired teacher of youth. He worked for the public good in a practical way, contributing greatly to the Workers' Education Association, of which he was president for two years. He showed the aesthetic side of his nature by his labours for the Public Gardens. His great quality as a scientist was his devotion to scientific truth.

by George Ranald Macdonald, Retired Farmer, Kaiapoi R.D.

• Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute, Vol. 60 (1930) (Obit).

Persons under 21 can sue in the Supreme Court only through a guardian ad litem or next friend. In a Magistrate's Court, however, any minor may sue in his own name for wages up to £1,000, and a minor over 18 may sue and be sued as if he were of full age.

A minor, unless he is married or on actual military service, cannot make a valid will.

by Bruce James Cameron, B.A., LL.M., Legal Adviser, Department of Justice, Wellington.

• The Legal Relationship of Parent and Child, Birks, W. R. (1952)
• Family Law, Inglis, B. D. (1960).

It is sometimes said that contracts by persons under 21 do not bind them. This is, however, subject to qualifications. Some contracts are merely voidable, that is, they are binding unless and until the minor repudiates them. Examples are tenancy agreements, contracts for the purchase of land or shares, and separation agreements. Contracts for necessaries, beneficial contracts of employment, and any contract entered into with the prior approval of a Magistrate, are wholly binding on a minor. A minor who enters into a contract that does not bind him, or repudiates a voidable contract, cannot recover anything he has paid under the contract unless he himself has derived no benefit whatever or can make complete restitution of what he has acquired.

Two points should be stressed. If the contract is completely carried out by both parties, the transaction is at an end and cannot ordinarily be reopened. Secondly, a minor can enforce any contract against the other party. The rules relating to minors' contracts are for their protection and the other party cannot take advantage of such rules.

The traditional rule, still in force in this country, is that the custody and guardianship of a legitimate child are vested in the father. While father and mother are living together, the mother has no right of guardianship, although curiously enough she can appoint a guardian to act jointly with the father after her death. On the father's death, the mother becomes the guardian either alone or jointly with a guardian appointed by the father or the Court. This rule is, however, subject to the very important qualification that, whenever a question of custody or upbringing comes before a Court, the paramount consideration is the child's welfare. In practice, therefore, the superior legal right of the father becomes relevant only occasionally.

Most custody disputes between father and mother arise on the breaking-up of a home. In such cases the problem of what to do with the children is often painful and difficult, and the Court may have to choose the lesser of two evils. Even where the parents are in agreement, it may be part of a bargain between them suiting their interests but not always those of the child.

Where the welfare of any child is in jeopardy, the State has power to intervene and, through the Courts, exercise control over the child. The principal source of this power is the Child Welfare Act 1925. A child under 17 who is neglected, indigent, or delinquent, or not under proper control, or living in an environment detrimental to his physical or moral welfare, may be brought before a Children's Court, together with anyone having custody of him. This Court, which is presided over by a Magistrate and always sits in private, may place the child under the supervision of a child welfare officer or may commit him to the care of the Superintendent of Child Welfare, in which case it makes an order specifying the religion in which he is to be brought up. The Superintendent becomes the guardian of all children committed to his care; they are not permanently maintained in an institution unless it is unavoidable, but are placed in a foster home.

Children's Courts have jurisdiction over offences committed by children under 17, except murder and manslaughter on the one hand and minor traffic offences on the other. An ordinary Court may refer to a Children's Court a charge against a child aged 17. Charges are inquired into but, if there is a finding of guilty no conviction is entered. A Children's Court may impose any sentence that could be imposed by an ordinary Court – thus it may fine an offender or, if he is over 15, send him to borstal or may place him under supervision or commit him to the care of the Superintendent of Child Welfare. There is a right of appeal to the Supreme Court against a finding of guilt or a sentence.

The general age of majority in New Zealand is 21, which the law regards as being attained on the day before the twenty-first birthday. Persons under 21 are known as infants or minors, the terms being almost interchangeable, although “minor” is used more especially of older children.

The actual age of majority, however, differs for different purposes. Sixteen is an important dividing line. A child over sixteen cannot ordinarily be compelled to remain at home against his wishes. Sixteen is the minimum age for marriage, and is also the age of consent for the purpose of the criminal law as to unlawful sexual intercourse. A minor of sixteen or over can probably give a valid consent to any usual or reasonable surgical operation. He holds a separate passport and is treated as an adult by the immigration laws.

Thomas Bracken, the poet, started the first chess column in New Zealand in the Southern Weekly Mercury in 1875, but the person who probably did most for chess was the late F. K. Kelling, who voluntarily undertook the task of being the game's publicist, a function he carried out for over 60 years. He was practically the founder of the New Zealand Chess Association. In 1883 Auckland staged an exhibition of “living chess”, but a more practical step was taken in 1947 by the late F. G. McSherry, a publisher and chess enthusiast, who for seven years at considerable personal loss published the New Zealand Chess Player. Chess periodicals, in general, have had short lives in New Zealand, but in 1962 Z. Frankel, making use of a modern method of reproduction, founded the New Zealand Chess Magazine.

by Conrad Brice Newick, M.A., DIP.N.Z.L.S., Assistant Reference Officer, General Assembly Library, Wellington.

The first chess club in New Zealand was the Dunedin Chess Club which was formed in September 1863. This was the forerunner of many similar ventures such as the Dunedin Athenaeum Chess Club, all of which took shape in the 1863–70 period. They antedated the foundation of the Napier Chess Club, which owed its origin to the enthusiasm of J. W. Whitty. This club was founded in April 1876, not 1863, as is sometimes erroneously stated.

At the present time there are over 120 clubs in existence, 44 belonging to the New Zealand Chess Association, which came into being in the 1870s. The association, refounded in 1892, conducts the annual championship, usually held in the Christmas – New Year period. The Australian master, C. J. S. Purdy, stated in 1955 that New Zealand holds the record for annual tourneys for a national chess championship.

New Zealand was one of the earliest countries to make use of telegraphic interclub chess as a method of play. Christchurch beat Nelson in two consultation games in 1866. The first interclub match was played between Canterbury and Otago in 1869. The Bledisloe Cup, presented by the Governor-General in 1933, is competed for annually in this way, and the Blackburn Cup is the subject of a competition among minor clubs.

In 1887 Count von der Lasa visited New Zealand. Earlier in the century he had been one of Europe's strongest players and, although by then an elderly man, he was still regarded as an authority on the theory of chess. There were further visits by European masters when Boris Kostich, of Yugoslavia, included New Zealand in his world tour of 1924. Lajos Steiner, the Hungarian grand master, came in 1937. Both masters played exhibition chess. In 1947 Robert Pikler, the well-known violinist, also played some exhibition chess while on a concert tour. The first strong Australian player to visit New Zealand was W. S. Viner in 1906–07. Others who followed included S. Crakenthorp, C. J. S. Purdy, and M. E. Goldstein. The usual pattern was for the visitors to play not only in the annual championship tourney but also in exhibition games. C. J. S. Purdy was the first schoolboy to win the championship, but Rodney Phillips became the youngest person to win the title, in 1956, when he tied with A. Feneridis. This also made him at 14 the youngest person ever to have held a Commonwealth national title.

Six players have been awarded the title of New Zealand master, namely, J. B. Dunlop, A. W. Gyles, W. E. Mason, R. Phillips, O. Sarapu, and R. G. Wade. Wade, who has lived abroad since 1949, is the only New Zealander to hold the title of an international master. Ortvin Sarapu, originally an Estonian but now a naturalised New Zealander, is probably the most outstanding player in New Zealand at present. In 1952 he played C. J. S. Purdy, then champion of Australia, for the championship of Australasia. The match, played at Auckland, was drawn, the players becoming joint champions for 1952. Sarapu took first place at the Melbourne International Tournament in 1955, the greatest success ever achieved in an international event by a New Zealand representative.

Correspondence chess has always been popular in New Zealand. Annual championship tournaments and other events are organised by the New Zealand Correspondence Association, with headquarters at present in Auckland.