Cook Strait is the stretch of water separating the North and South Islands of New Zealand. It connects the South Pacific Ocean and the Tasman Sea through the centre of the New Zealand land mass, and is 14 miles at its narrowest, between Cape Terawhiti on the south-east coast of Wellington, and Wellington Head near Tory Channel. Much of the shore of Cook Strait on both sides is composed of steep cliffs. The beaches of Cloudy Bay, Clifford Bay, and Palliser Bay are composed of boulders with steep and high storm beaches. Although these bays shoal gently down to 70 fathoms, where there is a more or less extensive submarine plateau, the bottom topography of the strait is complex. The major features of this bottom topography are, however, an eastern Cook Strait Canyon with steep, and in some places, precipitous walls descending eastwards into the bathyal depths of the Hikurangi Trench which lies off the east coast of the North Island. The upper part of the canyon divides into three arms: the South Arm, lying near the centre of the strait with its head south-west of Wellington; the Middle Arm with its head south of Tongue Point on the South Wellington Coast; and the Wairarapa Arm with its head at the 20-fathom contour near the western side of Palliser Bay. Centre Bank at a depth of 70 fathoms divides the South and Middle Arms. To the north-west of the Cook Strait Canyon, in the Cook Strait Narrows, lies the Narrows Basin, where depths of water between 150 and 200 fathoms predominate. Fisherman's Rock in the north end of the Narrows Basin near the centre rises to within a few feet of low tide, and is marked by wave break in rough weather. Leading into the Narrows Basin from the north-west is the North West Trough, a rather shallow submarine “valley” lying across the northern end of the Marlborough Sounds. Its head lies near the centre line of Tasman Bay. Near shore on both coasts from the Narrows both to north and west, the bottom topography is most irregular, particularly around the coast of the South Island where the presence of offshore islands, submerged rocks, and the entrances to the sounds, create violent eddy conditions. Cases in point are Koamaru Hole, 100 fathoms off the entrance to Queen Charlotte Sound; Jacksons Hole, 150 fathoms off Cape Jackson; Chetwode Hole, 80 fathoms off Chetwode Island; and Sentinel Rock and Stephens Hole, 150 fathoms off Stephens Island.

New Zealand's highest mountain, Mount Cook, reaches a height of 12,349 ft above sea level. It lies in the centre of the Mount Cook National Park, between two of New Zealand's largest glaciers, the Hooker to the west and the Tasman to the east. Geologists can offer no particular reason why the mountain should stand nearly 1,000 ft above its highest neighbours, for it is made of the same grey-wacke rock as Mount Dampier, Mount Tasman, and other nearby peaks, and indeed the rock is the same as that of most of New Zealand's backbone ranges. Presumably the height is due chiefly to rapid uplift by earthquake rather than to special hardness and durability of the rock.

Mount Cook differs considerably in aspect according to the viewpoint. From the Hermitage, Hooker Valley, and Lake Pukaki to the south, it presents a rather conventional view of a massive triangular mountain, tapering to a point. The onlooker finds it difficult to realise that he is seeing an end-on view of three peaks spaced along a ridge more than half a mile long. The three peaks are most clearly seen from the western side in the upper Hooker Glacier. The mountain is not picturesque from this viewpoint, presenting a rather shapeless mass, and most of the western face is covered in ice. Various climbing routes pass over the face, of which the favourite is to the south, so that climbers can take in all three peaks and enjoy the wonderful exposed climb along the crest of the ridge. A number of mountaineers have lost their lives on this face, most probably because of avalanches. The northern side facing Mount Dampier (11,200 ft) is very steep and presents an excellent climb, with overhangs on the route. This was the path taken by the Graham party in their first ascent of the mountain in 1894. From the north Mount Cook has a sharply peaked, rather menacing shape. The most common route of ascent lies up the north east slopes to the high peak, although in taking this route climbers must run a certain risk of ice avalanches from the Linda Glacier. It is from the east that Mount Cook is seen at its best, especially when viewed from the Tasman Glacier. Here the mountain truly dominates the scenery and, although not as beautiful as the ice-clad green Mount Tasman, reigns like a king in massive white-locked glory.

The first attempt to climb Cook was made in 1882 by the English climber W. S. Green who, along with Boss and Kaufmann, of Grindelwald, climbed to within 200 ft of the summit by an approach from the Tasman Glacier. The first complete ascent was made in 1894 by three New Zealanders, Fyfe, Clarke, and Graham. They made their climb from the Hooker Glacier, a difficult route. Since then the Mount Cook region has become a popular mountaineering centre with, unfortunately, the inevitable hazards, and over 60 climbers have lost their lives since 1914.

The Maori name for the mountain is Aorangi, usually interpreted as “Cloud Piercer”. The European name, in honour of Captain Cook, was given by Captain J. L. Stokes in the course of the Acheron survey in March 1851.

by Barry Clayton Waterhouse, New Zealand Geological Survey, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Otahuhu, Auckland.

Dr Samwell, surgeon in the Discovery, who accompanied Cook on the voyages of 1775–76, says:

“His person was above six feet high, and though a good looking man, he was plain both in address and appearance. His head was small, his hair, which was dark brown, he wore tied behind. His face was full of expression, his nose exceedingly well shaped, his eyes which were of a brown cast, were quick and piercing: his eyebrows prominent, which gave his countenance altogether an air of austerity.”

Source: Captain Cook and Hawaii – a narrative by David Samwell (originally published 1786, reprinted 1957), pp. 32–33.

Sir Walter Besant, a biographer of Cook; writes:

“He was, to begin with, over six feet high, thin and spare; his head was small; his forehead was broad; his hair was of a dark brown, rolled back and tied in the fashion of his time; his nose was long and straight; his nostrils clear and finely cut; his cheek bones were high, a feature which illustrated his Scotch descent; his eyes were brown and small, but well set, quick and piercing; his eyebrows were large and bushy, his chin was round and full; his mouth firmly set; his face long. It was an austere face, but striking ….”

Captain Cook, Besant, Walter (1890), p. 33.

Portraits

1. Portrait by Sir Nathaniel Dance, R.A., painted during May 1776. Cook is shown full face, looking towards his left, and he is wearing a wig. Seated at a small table, Cook holds the corner of a chart with his left hand while pointing to a feature on it with his right.

   Original oil painting in the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. Reproduction (in colour) The Journals of Captain Cook Vol. I (frontispiece), Beaglehole, J. C. (1955).

   Dance's portrait was engraved by J. K. Sherwin and published in Samwell's Captain Cook and Hawaii, facing p. 34.

   Of this engraving Samwell says: “it may not be amiss to observe, that the plate engraved by Sherwin, after a painting by Dance, is a most excellent likeness of Captain Cook; and more to be valued, as it is the only one I have seen that bears any resemblance to him”.

2. Engraving by C. Westermayers after another, less known, portrait by Dance. A copy of this engraving is held by the Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington. It is undated but would appear to have been made prior to 1800.

3. Portrait by John Webber, R.A., painted about 1780 for Cook's widow. The portrait is of three-quarter length and shows full face, with Cook looking to his right. His right hand, which rests on his hip, holds a tricorne hat. The original was acquired by the New Zealand Government in 1960 and now hangs in the National Art Gallery, Wellington.

4. Portrait by John Webber, R.A., is in the National Portrait Gallery, London. It is said to have been painted at the Cape of Good Hope about 1780. Like the other Webber portraits, it is a disappointing work of art. Reproduction (black and white). Captain James Cook, R.N., F.R.S., by Vice-Admiral Gordon Campbell, v.c. (1936). Frontispiece. Webber's portrait was engraved by Thornton (1781) and appears in Anderson's Large Folio Edition of the Whole of Captain Cook's Voyages &c. Complete (1786), frontispiece.

5. Portrait by William Hodges (1777). This shows Cook's head and shoulders. He is wearing civilian clothes and we see him full face, looking towards his right. The whereabouts of Hodge's portrait is not known but a black and white reproduction of an engraving by John Basire after Hodges, appears in the Journals of Captain Cook, Vol. II, Beaglehole, J. C. (1961), facing page xxxiii.

6. Portrait by an unknown artist, now held in the Museum, Whitby. This portrait, which is half-length, shows Cook in later life. It is full face and looking slightly to his right. He is in naval uniform and his left arm rests upon a globe while in his right hand he holds a pair of dividers. The features show a more serious cast of countenance. It is reproduced (black and white) in Captain James Cook, R.N., F.R.S. – the Circumnavigator, Kitson, A. (1907), facing p. 343.

7. A portrait by an unknown artist (1776), painted for the Governor of Newfoundland. It shows a standing figure in naval uniform, face three-quarters to the right. Historical and Descriptive Catalogue of… the National Portrait Gallery (1909), p. 88. The catalogue lists the portrait under James Cook but adds “identity doubtful”. It is reproduced (black and white) in the National Portrait Gallery, List of Paintings, Sculptures, Miniatures, &c. (1910), plate XVII.

Busts, Medals, and Statues

Several busts and statues of Cook were commissioned and executed long after his death and in the main derive from Dance's portrait. The medal struck by the Royal Society, in Cook's honour, was designed by Lewis Pingo and bears his signature. There is a specimen in the Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington. The National Portrait Gallery, London, has a 23 in. high marble bust of Cook, which was executed by Le Vieux in 1790. The National Gallery of Scotland has a medallion of Cook by James Tassie. This, which is undated, shows head and shoulders; body almost square on; head turned slightly to the right, and a little to one side; prominent nose; resolute mouth and chin; coat, with braided edges hanging open, shows high waistcoat. (Plaster, oval 4 by 3½ in.). Executed from a painting formerly in the possession of Sir Joseph Banks.

Statue of Captain Cook, Christchurch, by W. J. Trethewey.

Cook Relics

The following Cook relics are held by the Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington:

1. Wedgwood cameo, 9½ in. by 7 in., after the Basire engraving from Hodges portrait. (c. 1775.)

2. Wedgwood cameo, 4¼ in. by 3 in., showing profile right side. By John Flaxman R.A. (c. 1775.)

3. Silver Medal to commemorate the voyages of the Resolution and Adventure, March 1772. Diam. 4–4 cm. This medal was presented by Cook to the native chiefs on his second voyage as evidence of discovery.

4. Royal Society Silver Medal, honouring Cook, showing profile left side. Designed Lewis Pingo. Diam. 3–9 cm.

5. Bronze Medal struck for First New South Wales International Exhibition, 1879. Shows Cook, full face, looking towards his left – an indifferent likeness. Diam. 3–9 cm.

NOTE – The portraits listed here do not include those which, painted in Cook's lifetime, are now held in Australian Art Galleries and Libraries.

by Bernard John Foster, M.A., Research Officer, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington.

(1728–79).

Pacific explorer.

A new biography of Cook, James appears in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography on this site.

James Cook was born on 27 October 1728 at the Yorkshire village of Marton, a few miles south of Middlesbrough, in the valley of the Tees. His father, James Cook, a native of Ednam, Roxburghshire, Scotland, was a farm labourer in the employ of one Scottowe; his mother Grace, née Pace, was a Yorkshirewoman. Cook was the second child and there were other children. When Cook was about two years old Scottowe appointed his father manager of Airy Holme Farm, Great Ayton, a Yorkshire village a few miles south-east of Marton. Here the son grew up as a farm boy. He was taught to read by a Miss Mary Walker, and Scottowe paid for some schooling for him at the village school.

At the age of 17 Cook was apprenticed to William Sanderson, a general storekeeper of Staithes, a small Yorkshire seaport about a dozen miles from Great Ayton. After 18 months Sanderson released Cook from his apprenticeship so that he might be apprenticed to Walker Brothers, shipowners of the Yorkshire port of Whitby, at the mouth of the Esk. Cook's apprenticeship for three years commenced in July 1746. Walker Brothers were engaged mainly in the coastal coal trade from Newcastle and other northern ports as far south as London, and it was in the Freelove, a coal ship of 450 tons, that Cook's first seagoing experience, when he was aged 17–19, was gained. During the winter off-season he lived with his master, John Walker, who taught him navigation and became his lifelong friend. In 1748 Cook was transferred to a new Walker ship, the Three Brothers. In 1749 he had served his time with the Walkers and for two years sailed before the mast in the Baltic trade in the Mary and in a ship of Stockton. In 1752 he returned to the employ of the Walkers as mate of a new ship, the Friendship. Three years later the Walkers offered him the command of the Friendship, but he declined the offer in order to join the Navy, there being some possibility that he anticipated being pressed into naval service. He enrolled as an able seaman at Wapping on 17 June 1755. At that time England was engaged in hostilities with France, although war was not formally declared until 1756 (Seven Years' War).

Cook's seagoing naval service commenced in the Eagle, of 60 guns, which he boarded at Portsmouth on 25 June 1755, under command of Captain Hamer. A month later Cook was given the substantive position of master's mate. The Eagle was assigned with other ships to blockade the French shipping, but suffered damage in a storm and returned to refit. Hamer was replaced by Captain Hugh Palliser, who was destined for a distinguished naval career and proved a benefactor and friend of Cook. Early in 1756 Cook was appointed boatswain and, for a short time, was in command of a cutter off the French coast. After rejoining the Eagle Cook took a captured French ship to London. In May 1757 he saw brisk action when the Eagle engaged an armed French ship, capturing it. Cook received warrant rank as master, was transferred to the Solebay, and, a month later, to the Pembroke, of 64 guns.

Early in 1758 Cook sailed in the Pembroke to Halifax with Boscawen's fleet, and in July was present at the capture of the French fortress of Louisburg, at the mouth of the St. Lawrence. In 1759 Cook was engaged in surveying the tortuous channels of the St. Lawrence in preparation for the traverse of the British naval vessels as a prelude to Wolfe's attack on Quebec. At one stage Wolfe consulted Cook concerning the possibility of putting vessels close to the French batteries at the mouth of the Montmorenci River, a tribute to Cook's authority as a naval surveyor. During Wolfe's storming of Quebec, Cook, as master, remained on the Pembroke. In September, after the fall of Quebec, Cook was transferred to the Northumberland, flagship of Admiral Lord Colville, Commander-in-Chief of the North American Station.

During Cook's three years as master on the Northumberland he performed outstanding work as a naval surveyor in the St. Lawrence and on the coasts of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, with further experience of action against the French. Hostilities came to an end in 1762 – peace was finally made the following year – and on 11 November 1762 Cook was discharged from the Northumberland in England.

On 21 December 1762 Cook married Elizabeth Batts and settled for a few months at Shadwell, London. In March 1763 Commodore Thomas Graves, Governor of Newfoundland, asked the Admiralty for Cook's services as coastal surveyor, and in June of that year Cook arrived with Graves in Newfoundland, where he was engaged in surveying during the summer and autumn months, returning for the winter to his wife and first-born child. After establishing a permanent home in Mile End Row he went again in May to Newfoundland, where he assumed command of a survey vessel, the Grenville. By this time Palliser, his former commander in the Eagle, was Governor of Newfoundland. For four more years Cook spent the working months in the Grenville in the Newfoundland survey, and his winters at home. In 1766 he made observations of an eclipse of the sun, which formed the basis of a precise calculation of the longitude of Newfoundland, and brought his work to the notice of the Royal Society. In the latter months of 1767 he sailed back to England for the last time in the Grenville.

Cook's hour of destiny was now at hand. In 1642–43 Tasman had discovered the southern parts of Tasmania, part of the western littoral of New Zealand, and some of the islands of Tonga and Fiji, proving that there was an eastern limit to the parts of the Australian continent already discovered by the Dutch, though where this lay was left for Cook to discover in 1770. What was to the east between New Zealand's western littoral and the tip of South America still remained a subject of speculation when the British naval officers John Byron, Samuel Wallis, and Philip Carteret crossed the Pacific from the east in the years 1765 and 1767. The view of a number of geographers was that undiscovered land or islands of considerable extent lay in that area. Wallis sailed far enough west to discover Tahiti and a few other islands before striking to the north-west out of the South Pacific, and reported to the Admiralty that he had seen other land to the south of Tahiti. The Frenchman Louis Antoine de Bougainville crossed the Pacific in 1768, rediscovering Tahiti. Meanwhile, in London the Royal Society had concerted with the Admiralty a plan to make observations of the transit of Venus in the South Pacific. In April-May 1768 Cook, following on the refusal of Alexander Dalrymple to accompany the expedition except as commander of the intended vessel, was appointed to the command of the Endeavour, with the rank of first lieutenant, and was made one of the Royal Society's observers of the forthcoming transit of Venus. At this juncture Wallis reached England with news of his discovery of Tahiti and of the supposed continental peaks seen to the south of it. Tahiti, therefore, became the destination of the Endeavour for the proposed observations of Venus, and in secret official instructions Cook was bidden to investigate thereafter whether there was land to the south within the fortieth parallel and, if the occasion called for it, to turn west toward Tasman's discovery, the west of New Zealand.

With Cook in the Endeavour sailed Joseph Banks, a wealthy man devoted to botanical and other scientific observations, a Fellow of the Royal Society, whose journal of the voyage is an outstanding record. Another noteworthy associate was D. C. Solander, also a Fellow of the Royal Society. Lieutenant Zachary Hicks was second in command under Cook. Sydney Parkinson, an artist, should also be mentioned, since he made some notable sketches of New Zealand scenes.

In August 1768 the Endeavour sailed from Plymouth. Built at Whitby, she was a “cat-built” bark, that is, a bluff-bowed, sturdy craft, like those in which Cook had sailed in his collier days. Observations of the transit of Venus were made at Tahiti and Cook then set about the second part of his task, to explore the waters to the south of Tahiti. With him, as a protég of Banks, went Tupaea, a Tahitian chief whose aid as an interpreter in New Zealand proved to be of the greatest value, and a Tahitian boy named Taiata.

Having sailed south to latitude 40° 22' S without seeing a continent or extensive islands, Cook came in sight of the North Island of New Zealand in latitude 38° 51' S on 7 October 1769. (Cook's dates are in nautical time from noon to noon without adjustment for westing.) On the ninth, having anchored in Poverty Bay near the site of Gisborne, Cook led a party ashore. On that day and the next the visitors were involved in skirmishes with the local Maoris, some of whom were killed. After three young Maoris, who had been kindly treated, were put ashore the Endeavour left Poverty Bay and followed the coast to the south.

Between Poverty Bay and Table Cape the Europeans had friendly encounters with the occupants of several canoes. Cook followed the coast of Hawke's Bay, passing close to the site of Napier, where the ship was approached by several canoes. Cape Kidnappers was so called because the occupants of one of a number of craft which came near the ship seized Taiata and tried to make off with him, desisting only when some of their number were shot. On reaching Cape Turnagain Cook decided to come north along the coast again. At intervals along the coast between Poverty Bay and Cape Turnagain villages and fires were observed. While passing Mahia Peninsula the ship was visited by two chiefs and three followers, who stayed overnight.

On 20 October the Endeavour passed Poverty Bay and anchored in Anaura Bay. Here the visitors were received in friendly fashion by the local Maoris, who gave them sweet potatoes and told them there were better watering facilities in a bay to the south, which Cook accordingly visited from the twenty-third to the twenty-ninth. This was Tolaga Bay. Here the inhabitants were again very friendly, trading fish and other commodities for beads and Tahitian cloth. The only four-footed animals were dogs and rats, the flesh of the former being used for food and the skins for clothing. The Maoris cultivated sweet potatoes and yams.

From Tolaga Bay Cook continued on to the north, rounding East Cape and seeing many villages and much cultivated land on the Bay of Plenty coast. Two lots of canoes, the occupants of which proved troublesome, were driven off by shots from the ship. As the Endeavour passed Motuhora it was followed for a time by a large double canoe. Numbers of palisaded villages and defensive works were observed. The ship entered Mercury Bay, where other canoes, whose inhabitants were regarded with suspicion by the Europeans, came near, but friendly relations were established with the local Maoris. Here Cook remained from 4 November to 15 November 1769. The transit of Mercury was observed on the ninth. Cook inspected the local pa and native weapons, giving descriptions of them; the Maoris confirmed that they ate their enemies. Before leaving Mercury Bay Cook took possession of the neighbourhood in the name of the King.

Leaving Mercury Bay Cook came round Cape Colville to the head of the Firth of Thames, having contacts both hostile and friendly with the occupants of canoes which came out to the ship. Cook and some companions visited a village near the mouth of the Waihou and went some way up the river, admiring the lofty trees which lined its banks, and seeing poles stuck up with nets for catching fish.

From the Firth of Thames Cook came north without penetrating the screens of islands fronting the Tamaki and Waitemata, or seeing Whangarei Harbour. In the neighbourhood of Cape Brett there were more contacts, some friendly and some less so, with the occupants of visiting canoes. Encountering head winds to the north of Cape Brett Cook took the ship into the Bay of Islands. Here, near Tapeka Point, the ship remained from 29 November until 5 December 1769. After initial skirmishes, which again provoked the use of muskets and guns, the Maoris of the bay became quite friendly and traded food for Tahitian cloth. Cook observed that the tree from which this type of cloth was made was present at the bay, but that local cloth appeared to be scarce. Sweet potatoes and yams were cultivated and fish were plentiful. Cook made visits to various parts of the bay. The inhabitants were numerous, both on the islands and on the mainland, and numbers of pas were observed.

From the Bay of Islands Cook resumed his northward coasting. After passing between the Cavalli Islands and the mainland coast the ship was visited by several canoes. Cook noted Doubtless Bay while passing it. Beyond Doubtless Bay some fish was bought from the occupants of visiting canoes. Cook struck variable winds off North Cape, during which time, without his knowing it, he passed the Saint Jean Baptiste, commanded by Jean de Surville, who stayed for a time at Doubtless Bay before resuming his voyage to the east. Having recognised the Three Kings from Tasman's discovery of them, Cook ran to the south along the west coast of the North Island and sighted Mount Egmont, which had not been seen by Tasman. No landing was made, nor canoes seen, until the ship reached Queen Charlotte Sound.

The Endeavour was at Ship Cove in Queen Charlotte Sound from 16 January to 6 February 1770, during which time it was careened. Friendly relations were established with the inhabitants. Cook ascended some high points in the sound and saw what he thought was fairly certainly a passage to the east to the open sea. This was confirmed by a Maori informant. On 31 January Cook took possession of the sound and adjacent lands in the name of the King.

After completing his traverse of Cook Strait Cook proved that the North Island was in fact an island by sailing north until Cape Turnagain was sighted. He then sailed south along the east coast of the South Island. Off Kaikoura Peninsula some canoes came off to the ship. Cook rounded Banks Peninsula and saw the entrance to Akaroa Harbour, but thought the Peninsula itself was an island. He stood off the coast for a time in order to dispose of a fancied sighting of land to the east by one of his officers, and then came west to the coast again. He saw Cape Saunders and Saddle Hill on Otago Peninsula, but did not enter Otago Harbour, although he might have seen the approaches to it. After passing the Traps, Cook coasted Stewart Island on the south side without establishing its insularity, although Hicks, his second in command, concluded that it was divided by a strait from the mainland. Cook tried to get into Dusky Sound, but gave up. He saw the entrance to Doubtful Sound, but did not enter it. On or about 19 March Cook came to the area of Tasman's landfall near the site of Hokitika. Having rounded Farewell Spit Cook watered in Admiralty Bay.

On 1 April 1770 Cook quitted New Zealand on his way to his discovery of the east coast of the Australian continent. In his Journal he gave a summary of his ethnological observations of the Maoris – their animals, ornaments, appearance, tattooing, clothing, warfare and weapons, cannibalism, foods and fishing, canoes, houses, tools, musical instruments, dances, mourning, and language.

On his second voyage to the Pacific Cook, now a captain, came in the Resolution from the west to Dusky Sound, which he entered on 26 March 1773. Here he made friends with the local Maoris and made notes of their ways of life and natural environment. On 11 May Cook regained the open sea and, on the nineteenth, reached Ship Cove in Queen Charlotte Sound, where he found his second ship, the Adventure, commanded by Tobias Furneaux, who had been separated from him earlier in the voyage.

After renewing his acquaintance with the Maoris of the Sound, Cook, on 7 June 1773, sailed with Furneaux for the Society Islands. Here two Tahitians, Hitihiti and Mae (better known as Omai), joined the expedition. While coming west from the Society Islands Cook discovered, on 23 September 1773, another piece of New Zealand territory, the Hervey Islands (Manuae and Te Au o Tu), in the Southern Cooks. After visiting Tonga the Resolution and Adventure sailed south. On 21 October 1773 Cook came once again in sight of New Zealand near Table Cape. On 30 October Furneaux in the Adventure became separated from the Resolution and returned eventually to England without rejoining Cook, taking Omai with him. On 3 November 1773 Cook tried to get into the entrance to Wellington Harbour, but gave up when the tide turned. After revisiting Queen Charlotte Sound from 3 November to 25 November he sailed to the east, proving finally that there was no continent or extensive islands to the east of New Zealand. Later in the voyage Cook made two more contributions to the discovery of New Zealand when, on 16 and 17 June 1774, he passed close to Palmerston Island in the Southern Cooks and, on 21 June, saw Niue, where he landed at two places, but found his advances resisted by the islanders. On 17 October 1774 Cook once again saw New Zealand near Cape Egmont and, on 18 October, anchored in Queen Charlotte Sound, sailing thence on 10 November 1774. Notable associates of Cook on this voyage are John Reinhold Forster and George Forster, natural historians, and William (James) Hodges, official artist.

Cook's third voyage to the Pacific was made with the Resolution and Discovery. William Anderson was natural historian and John Webber official artist. With Cook was Omai, who was returned later in the voyage to the Society Islands. Coming from the west Cook reached Queen Charlotte Sound on 12 February 1777, where he remained until 25 February. In his Journal Cook included Anderson's notes on Queen Charlotte Sound and its inhabitants. Proceeding for Tahiti the expedition saw Mangaia in the Southern Cooks on 29 March 1777. Here observations of the inhabitants were made, although there was no landing. On 31 March Cook discovered Atiu, where Anderson and Omai, with two of Cook's officers, on going ashore, met with a friendly reception from the islanders, of whom they recorded valuable ethnological data. A landing party visited Takutea, which had been previously seen close to Atiu. On 6 April Cook passed close to the Hervey Islands – seen on the previous voyage – where some canoes came out to the ship. Cook then ran west for Tonga. On 14 April a landing party inspected Palmerston Island, discovered on the previous voyage. This was Cook's last sight of New Zealand territory. Later in the voyage, on 14 February 1779, Cook was killed by the inhabitants of Kealakakua Bay, Hawaii.

James Cook is a figure of paramount importance in the history of New Zealand, not only because of his discovery of most of the coasts of its main islands and of most of the Southern Cooks and Niue, but also because his discovery of New South Wales opened up the way to the British settlement both of New South Wales and of the main islands of New Zealand. His character and training and the great occasions that presented themselves for the display of his practical genius as navigator and shrewd observer combined to make him the foremost figure in the exploration of the Pacific and, in particular, of the New Zealand area. His ethnological observations of the inhabitants of that area provide records of their material culture and customs at the time of European contact.

by Charles Andrew Sharp, B.A.(OXON.), M.A.(N.Z.), Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington.

• Life of Captain Cook, Carrington, H. (1939)
• The Journals of Captain James Cook, Beaglehole, J. C. (ed. 2 vols., 1955–61)
• A Voyage Towards the South Pole, Cook, J. (1777)
• A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, Cook, J. (2 vols., 1784).

The New Zealand law of contracts differs little from that of England, and consequently this article deals with certain aspects only.

A contract is essentially a bargain between two or more persons. All contracts involve a promise but a mere promise is not enough to constitute a contract. Such a promise may be legally binding, for instance, when it takes the form of a deed or, sometimes, where the promisee changes his position in reliance on it. What is necessary to make a contract, however, is that something should be promised or done by the other party in return for the promise. It may be purely nominal, but there must be something to characterise the transaction. This is known technically as consideration. Moreover, the parties must intend to enter into a legal relationship – a social or domestic arrangement is not ordinarily a contract. Most contracts may be oral or in writing. A few contracts are, however, made unenforceable unless in writing. Examples are contracts for the sale, mortgage, or charging of land or for certain other dispositions of land (for example, many leases), contracts of guarantee, customary hire purchase agreements, and agreements with moneylenders.

The Law Reform (Testamentary Promises) Act of 1949 enables effect to be given to an otherwise unenforceable oral agreement to leave land by will in return for the performance of services. The Court is, however, not bound by the exact terms of the agreement and can look at the merits of the case and make whatever order it considers just.

The most important modern development in the field of contract has been the growth of standard contracts, often used by all the members of a particular trade. In certain spheres this has made freedom of contract illusory. An individual wishing to enter into a transaction is often confronted with a standard form of contract, the terms of which he is virtually powerless to alter. Moreover, such contracts often purport to exclude or limit liability. Occasionally Parliament intervenes to prescribe the terms subject to which particular contracts must be read – for example, contracts for the sea carriage of goods and hire purchase agreements, or contracts to prohibit the exclusion of liability, as in the Carriers Act. It is a question, however, whether regulation of the provisions of some other types of standard contract would not be in the public interest.

by Bruce James Cameron, B.A., LL.M., Legal Adviser, Department of Justice, Wellington.

• The Law of Contract, Cheshire, G. C., and Fifoot, C. H. S. (N.Z. Ed. 1961).

Consumer Service does not operate a complaints service. Many complaints are received and, wherever possible, assistance is given, but it would not be practicable to undertake a long investigation of each complaint. If, however, an important point of wide interest or implication is raised, a very detailed investigation is made.

The activities of the Service are not limited to testing, publishing, broadcasting, and answering complaints. One of its most important functions is to bring to the notice of manufacturers, retailers, and the servicing trades that the consumer has rights that cannot be ignored and that there is an active organisation devoted to seeing that these rights are respected. It is important that, whenever matters affecting the interests of consumers are being discussed, the viewpoint of the consumer be clearly presented. This type of work is often carried out by local associations, but at times representations on a national scale are necessary. Significantly, there is a growing tendency for Consumer Service to be consulted by public bodies which are anxious to have the users' point of view represented.

by Brian Newton Davis, M.A., Vicar, St. Philips, Karori West, Wellington and Edward Stewart Dollimore, Research Officer, Department of Lands and Survey, Wellington.

Because buyers are often unable to decide what is the best brand of a particular product to buy, and as they are often misled by extravagant advertising claims, the testing of goods is a major function of any consumer service. It is also one of its most difficult problems. Factors which must be taken into account are the extent of consumer interest in a particular product; the need for testing – that is, the extent to which it is difficult for a consumer to make an assessment himself; the cost of testing; and the facilities available for testing. Products in everyday use, particularly those whose merits cannot readily be assessed because of the appeal of different brands, are possibilities for the testing programme. Suggestions are received from district committees and consumer associations and from members who subscribe to the quarterly publication Consumer Service. The testing committee of the Council narrows the number down by eliminating those projects which have special technical or testing problems that cannot be overcome. Articles remaining on the list are documented, where possible, with the criteria for testing. These include New Zealand or applicable overseas standard specifications, as well as appropriate suggestions for testing from suitable authorities, recommendations as to what testing authorities might carry out the work, the number of samples needed, the time allowed, and an estimate of costs. The projects are then referred to the Consumer Council which approves, modifies, or rejects the proposed tests.

When a project has been approved, the Service buys a range of the product, has them tested by qualified and acknowledged experts, and advises which particular brands give the best value for money. It has been shown quite conclusively that in some instances the higher priced goods are not necessarily the highest in quality, and that far better value can sometimes be obtained by buying cheaper brands. Sometimes particular products are found to be unsafe and do not conform to relevant standard specifications. In a test of domestic rotary lawn mowers it was found that they were all unsafe in one way or another. The manufacturers concerned were given in detail the faults of their machines, and the Standards Council was asked to prepare a safety standard. This is an example of the benefit the public derives from the objective investigation of a consumer organisation. The results of these tests, and descriptions of the testing procedures followed, are published in Consumer. Goods so far tested range from babies' napkins to parking meters. On occasion, if testing is not practicable, guides are published which, without assessing the merits of particular brands, give useful buying hints and compare prices, properties, guarantees, and servicing. Sometimes the attention of readers is drawn to false or misleading advertising or packaging, and the more extravagant advertising claims are analysed. General articles are published on subjects such as guarantees, hire-purchase agreements, and rates of interest. Weekly radio broadcasts supplement the information given in Consumer and reach a very wide audience.

In the post-war years there was a growing awareness and appreciation of the problems facing the consumer. This led in late 1958 to a national consumer conference in Wellington and to the establishment of Consumer Service. Official support of the new movement was confirmed in the following year under Section 8 of the Finance Act of 1959 which formally established the Consumer Council and defined its role:

The Council is an independent body appointed by the Minister of Industries and Commerce to direct the operations of the Service. It is non-political and is not subject to Government direction or control. It consists of nine members of the public, together with the permanent heads of the four Government Departments actively concerned with consumer problems – Health, Labour, Scientific and Industrial Research, and Industries and Commerce. As it was unlikely that the new organisation could have been established effectively without some assistance, the Government, in sponsoring the movement, decided to provide the necessary administrative staff and accommodation. The Council is assisted by District Consumer Committees which have been appointed by the Minister in the four main centres of population. There are also consumer associations in areas where members of the Service are interested in taking a more active part in consumer affairs. These groups deal mainly with local questions, but they also bring to the notice of the Council matters of national interest.

Since the Industrial Revolution the close relationship between producer and consumer has gone. People today often have little chance of assessing either the quality or performance of the commodity they purchase. The problem in New Zealand is partly met by official action – by legislation and by regulations designed to prevent abuses and to control dangerous goods and dubious practices. Most Government Departments, in one way or another, have as one of their functions the safeguarding of the public. Prominent in this field are the Departments of Labour, Health, Industries and Commerce, and Scientific and Industrial Research. Among other things, these Departments deal with public health, working conditions, weights and measures, standards of quality, marking of goods, profiteering, and restrictive business practices. Although official action of this kind gives real and extensive protection, it is desirable for the consumer to make, as far as possible, his own decisions. The problem is one of adequate information – this has been met in many countries by organisations of consumers, which provide the buying public with accurate information on goods and services.

Consumer movements were successfully established in several of the more heavily industrialised nations in the period between the two world wars. The value of these organisations was appreciated in New Zealand, and several attempts were made in the late thirties to form consumer groups here. For a variety of reasons, mainly public apathy, these attempts failed, with one exception – the movement for uniform standards.

(1893–1950).

Astronomer and computer.

Leslie John Comrie was born at Pukekohe on 15 August 1893. He gained his M.A. at Auckland University in 1916 with honours in Chemistry. In spite of the handicap of deafness, he served with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force in the First World War and was wounded, with the loss of a leg. Forsaking chemistry, he followed an earlier interest in astronomy and computation, in which he was destined to become a master. Proceeding to St. John's College, Cambridge, as a research student, he was elected to an Isaac Newton Scholarship in 1920. He was awarded the Ph.D. degree in 1923 for a thesis on occultations of stars by planets. From Cambridge he proceeded to the United States, where he spent three years teaching astronomy and introducing computational science into the undergraduate course, first at Swarthmore College, and then at North-Western University, Evanston, Illinois.

Appointed to His Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office in 1925, Comrie ultimately became its superintendent in 1930. In 1936 he left this position and founded in 1937 a private firm, Scientific Computing Service Ltd., London, which provided for the first time a general service for professional needs of high-volume calculation. During the Second World War this firm produced services with an accuracy and speed of which Comrie was justly proud. Ballistic, bombing, and geodetic tables were all compiled in effective fashion.

In 1948 he made a complete tour of New Zealand, revisiting old friends and places. He died in London on 11 December 1950. He was a fellow both of the Royal Astronomical Society and of the Royal Society.

Deafness and the physical disabilities of a lost leg may have been the reason for his apparent lack of great interest in things other than his chosen work of computational astronomy. On the other hand, to deal with such a subject on the scale undertaken by Comrie would leave little time for anything else. His impact on computational and precision astronomy may perhaps be appreciated only by those engaged in such subjects over the last few decades, but its immensity would soon be discovered if students had to revert to the methods in use before his time. Virtually he made the discovery that the then existing calculating machines, which were designed for commercial practice, could be adapted to scientific work, and that specialised machines need not be designed. Further, he showed that such machines had the inherent power to perform hitherto difficult tasks with great ease and accuracy. Before his time, at His Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office, all astronomical calculations were performed by hand, using logarithms. The development of machine work wrought a change which is still having its effect today in all branches of astronomy. The 1931 Nautical Almanac is a classic, demonstrative of this new approach.

Besides purely astronomical work, of which eclipses and occultations held his greatest interest, he became a foremost authority on the production of mathematical tables, of which the most famous may be the two volumes of Chamber's Six-Figure Mathematical Tables. For Comrie, “accuracy” had a specific and clear meaning, which could most often be acquired by the planning of elegant methods of work.

by Ivan Leslie Thomsen, F.R.A.S.(LOND.), Director, Carter Observatory, Wellington.