(1916– ).

Palaeontologist.

A new biography of Fleming, Charles Alexander appears in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography on this site.

Charles Alexander Fleming was born in Auckland on 9 September 1916 and educated at King's College, Auckland, and Auckland University College, of which he holds the degrees of B.A. and D.Sc. During the Second World War he served as a coast watcher in the Auckland Islands. In 1940 he joined the New Zealand Geological Survey as an assistant geologist, becoming palaeontologist five years later and senior palaeontologist in 1952. He has won several awards for his research work, including the New Zealand Research Medal (1951), the Hutton Medal (1956), and the Hector Medal (1963), and is a fellow of the New Zealand Royal Society. He has been president of the New Zealand Ornithological Society (1948–49), the New Zealand Federation of Recorded Music Societies (1957–59), and of the New Zealand Royal Society (1962–64). He was awarded the O.B.E. in 1964.

Until 1900 all flax used commercially came from swampy areas where the plant grew naturally. Between 1900 and 1920 many swamps where phormium already grew were drained and these areas have provided better quality leaf. After 1920 phormium was grown in plantations. It is not grown from seed. Fans are separated from existing flax-bushes and transplanted into rows from 4 to 6 ft apart. They grow to maturity in five years. The leaves are then cut about 6 in. above the ground and it is another four years before the plant can be cut again. Three varieties grown in 1961 were: ngaro and ngaire, two Maori varieties, and “S.S.”, an improved strain selected by a member of the Seifert family, well-known flax growers. The cut leaf is tied in bundles and transported to the mill where the fibre is separated from the fleshy part by a stripping machine. Then it is washed and spread on the ground or over fences for several days, to bleach. The dried fibre is next scutched, or scraped, by machine, to remove surplus vegetable matter, then pressed and baled.

Yellow leaf disease, a cause of failure in crops, was first reported in 1908. About 1920 large areas of phormium in the Manawatu district were destroyed by it. Many years of research into possible causes, viz., insects, fungi, bacteria, and virus, resulted in the discovery that “yellow leaf” was a virus spread by the phormium hopper. Prolonged flooding of plantations proved a method of exterminating the hopper and controlling the disease. There was evidence that some varieties, e.g., “S.S.” and “Tihore”, were resistant to “yellow leaf”.

At Foxton, the fibre is manufactured into woolpacks (2,700 tons of fibre for 1964), floor coverings (250–300 tons), carded hemp for the plasterers' trade, underfelt, and padding for upholsterers. A large rope manufacturing firm in New Zealand received 800 tons of phormium fibre in 1963. The phormium is mixed with imported sisal to make rope, hay-baling twine, binder-twine, and lashings. A higher percentage of phormium could be used in the manufacture of rope if the supply of good quality fibre was greater. Probably there is little likelihood of economic production of phormium fibre for export again, but there is scope for increased production for use in New Zealand.

by Jeanne Hannington Goulding, Botanist's Assistant, Auckland Museum.

• Letters and documents of L. Nattrass (1844–71) (MSS), Auckland Institute and Museum Library
• Phormium tenax as a fibrous plant, Hector, J. (1872)
• Historical Records of New Zealand, McNab, R. (1908)
• Phormium tenax, Atkinson, E. H. (1922)
• Agricultural Organisation in New Zealand, Belshaw, H., and others
• “Flax (Phormium tenax) or New Zealand Hemp,” Yeates, J. S. (1936)
• Report on a visit to New Zealand to study the Phormium industry, 1955, Moss, G. S. (Saint Helena: Solomon and Company) (1956).

Sydney merchants sent ships to New Zealand to collect fibre in 1810,1813, and 1814, without success; but in 1815 the Active, returning to Sydney with Samuel Marsden, had phormium fibre in the cargo. By 1828 trade with Sydney was established when 60 tons of fibre exported to Sydney were reexported to England for £2,600. In 1830, 841 tons exported to Sydney at £17 a ton, brought 45 a ton in England. Experiments in manufacturing sailcloth and paper from the fibre were carried out in England. “An Account of the Phormium tenax or New Zealand flax”, written by John Murray, was printed on paper made from flax in 1836. But most of the exported fibre was used in rope-making. Ropes from phormium were tested in Portsmouth as early as 1819, and in Sydney in 1820 with some success; but ropes made under the Harris patent at Grimsby came in for adverse criticism between 1832 and 1835. The other hard fibres, manila (from the Philippines) and sisal (from Mexico) proved of better quality. There was evidence from dockyards and sailing ships that flax rope swelled in wet weather, would not stand splicing, and wore badly. Rope-walks, where rope was twisted by hand, were established in New Zealand by the early settlers – the first at Wellington in 1843.

A set of hand machines for dressing flax according to the Donlan process was brought out to New Zealand by Luke Nattrass in 1844, but until 1860 flax was mostly hand-dressed by the Maoris. With the outbreak of the Maori war and consequent decrease in fibre output by the Maoris, there was renewed activity by the Europeans in New Zealand to produce better flax-dressing machines. In 1861 Messrs Purchas and Ninnis patented a machine which they claimed produced fibre similar in appearance to manila. Luke Nattrass invented a mechanical and chemical process, and applied for a patent in 1871.

Production (over 300 mills were in operation) and export (over 6,000 tons) reached a peak in 1873. The shortage of manila during the American Civil War and subsequent improvement in price on the American market stimulated the boom in New Zealand's output. This was followed by a depression, and in 1880 there were only 40 mills in operation. Many of the early flaxmillers, like the sawmillers and gumdiggers, worked an area until it was exhausted and then moved on to another suitable site, or, if the market was bad, closed down altogether.

Although New Zealand trade, on the whole, was still suffering from a depression in 1889, there was a sharp rise in production of phormium fibre. This was due to a temporary decrease in output of manila and sisal; also to the extensive use of automatic binders and manufacture of binder-twine, for which phormium proved suitable. In 1890, 21,000 tons of fibre were exported. The subsequent decline in export was in line with the diminishing use of sailing ships and of rope. A rise in export in 1900 was caused by a shortage of sisal during the Spanish-American War, and in 1902 a compulsory grading system improved the quality of phormium fibre. There were 240 mills in production in 1905, and by 1907 export prices and quantities rose to £31 a ton, and 28,000 tons. Once again a depression followed the boom.

Fibres were in great demand during the First World War, and phormium reached the maximum export total of 32,000 tons in 1916, and highest average price of £52 a ton in 1918. The price had dropped to £25 a ton by 1923, when only 12,000 tons went overseas, and the general depression of the 1930s brought the virtual collapse of the flax export trade. A little fibre was exported during the Second World War, and there are records of some sent abroad in 1946, 1949, and 1951. Since then all the phormium that is produced is used in New Zealand. The 14 flax mills working in 1963 produced a total of almost 5,000 tons of fibre.

When the Maoris came to New Zealand, they brought with them the paper mulberry plant from which they made bark cloth for clothing. The paper mulberry did not flourish and a substitute material was found in the native flax. As Captain Cook wrote: “Of the leaves of these plants, with very little preparation, they (the Maoris) make all their common apparel; and of these they make also their strings, lines and cordage …”. They also made baskets, mats, and fishing nets from the undressed flax.

Fibre was obtained from the leaves by stripping with the sharp edge of a mussel shell the lower surface of the leaf from the upper. The remaining upper surface was then scraped with the shell, washed, and scraped again in running water, spread out to dry, and finally worked and twisted for the purpose required. Lines, cordage, and superior garments were made from the phormium fibre.

The Maori recognised over 60 varieties of flax, and certain ones were used for definite purposes, for example:

korako: a dark green leaf with dark brown edge and flowers with pale yellow keel, was used for best garments in Taranaki.

tapoto: leaves narrow, erect, with deep purple margin; strong lustrous fibre used for sewing threads or weft of fine mats in Taranaki, East Coast, and Hawke's Bay.

mataroa: a short fibre used for borders of fine mats in the Wanganui River district.

ate: a strong fibre used for eel nets and baskets–Wanganui.

kauhangaroa: used only for baskets and matting – Hawke's Bay

ngaro: bluish green leaf, black edge – best of all kinds for all purposes (Raglan), used for rough garments (Taranaki); stiff fibre (West Coast).

The skill of the Maori flax-dressers was known to the early European traders who obtained fibre in exchange for iron nails and axes. At the request of Governor King of Norfolk Island, two Maoris were taken to the island in 1793 in order to show the Europeans how to prepare fibre from Phormium tenax growing there. In 1794, at Thames, Maoris made flax ropes to replace the running-rigging on the brig Fancy, and the same thing was done for the sailing ship Matilda which anchored in Otago Harbour in 1813.

As soon as the Maoris saw the value of muskets, firearms became the principal article of barter for flax. One ton of phormium fibre was demanded by the European traders for one or two muskets. Inland tribes, unable to barter flax at the ports, would exchange slaves for muskets with tribes already in possession of firearms; three to five slaves for a musket, the slaves being of value as flax-dressers. The need for large quantities of fibre, together with the fact that hilltop pas were unsatisfactory fortifications against muskets, resulted in the Maoris going to live on low-lying swamps where flax grew. This change of residence and the neglect of food cultivation proved detrimental to their health.

Phormium tenax Forst., called harakeke by the Maori, and generally known as New Zealand flax, is a monocotyledon. It belongs to the agave family, and is native to New Zealand and Norfolk Island. It is a tall perennial “herb” with rigid leaves 3 to 9 ft long, and 2 to 5 in. wide, which grow in fans. The red or yellow flowers are borne in large panicles on stems up to 15 ft high, and yield nectar which attracts birds. The plant grows abundantly throughout New Zealand in lowland swamps and alluvial soils, from sea level to 4,500 ft. Phormium colensoi is the smaller, yellow-flowered species found on the sea coast, and in the mountains.

Captain Cook and Joseph Banks recorded the presence of flax in New Zealand in 1770, and the first published account of it is in Hawkes-worth's edition of Cook's first voyage. J. R. and G. Forster, botanists on Cook's second voyage in 1772, named the plant Phormium tenax, in allusion to baskets which the Maoris made from the leaves–phormium from the Greek phormos, a basket, and the Latin tenax, strong.

Demise of the Crown – on the day of death (or on the day on which intelligence of death is received) until after the funeral.

On the death of a member of the Royal Family to whom Royal Honours are accorded – on the actual day of the funeral, subject to any special Commands from the Sovereign.

On the death of the head of a foreign state – on the day of death but subject to confirmation by the Minister of External Affairs.

On the death of a New Zealand Prime Minister – on the day of death and the day of funeral.

On the death of Ministers of the Crown – or Members of the House of Representatives – on the day of funeral only.

On the death of a Commonwealth Prime Minister in office – on the day of death only.

On the death of a Permanent Head of a Government Department – on the day of funeral only.

On Remembrance Day (11 November) – Flags to be flown all day but half masted for two minutes at 11 o'clock.

6 February: Her Majesty's Accession (also commemorates Waitangi Day)

17 March: St. Patrick's Day

21 April: Birthday of Her Majesty The Queen

23 April: St. George's Day

25 April: Anzac Day

8 May: V.E. Day

24 May: Commonwealth Day

2 June: Coronation Day

1st Monday in June: Birthday of Her Majesty The Queen: (Day of Official Observance)

10 June: Birthday of The Duke of Edinburgh

4 August: Birth of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother

15 August: V.J. Day

26 September: Dominion Day

24 October: United Nations Day

4th Monday in October: Labour Day

11 November: Remembrance Day (formerly Armistice Day)

14 November: Birthday of the Prince of Wales

30 November: St. Andrew's Day

Opening of Parliament by Governor-General – in Wellington only (not on day when opened by Commissioners).

Arrival and swearing-in of the Governor-General Designate (in Wellington only).

Departure of the Governor-General (at the port concerned).

Anniversary Day of the particular province in which the town is situated.

Note: Whenever any of the above dates fall on a Sunday, the flags are to be flown on the following Monday, the exception being Anzac Day when the flags are flown on the actual date.

Flags used by business enterprises, clubs, religious, and uniformed organisations form a miscellaneous category of New Zealand flags which it would be too large to catalogue in full. The following, therefore, must be considered as a brief and only partially representative selection. It must be emphasised, also, that those in this category are private flags in that they are displayed only by the groups concerned, and that while some may be known nationally and even internationally, their significance is reserved to the groups whose purposes they serve.

Among business flags, that of the Australia and New Zealand Bank is a noteworthy representative, because it is an instance of a flag which has been designed by the Royal College of Heralds from the company's official coat of arms (E20). Another distinctive private flag is that belonging to the Wellesley Club in Wellington (E21). This is based upon the crest of the Dukes of Wellington, whose family name the club perpetuates. Several religious denominations use special flags. The Anglican and Presbyterian Churches use the flags of St. George and St. Andrew respectively, and the Ratana and Ringatu Maori Churches also have their special flags. The church flag most often seen in New Zealand, however, is that belonging to the Salvation Army. This is invariably in red, yellow, and blue, colours which symbolise, respectively, the blood of Christ, the fire of the Holy Spirit, and the purity of the soul. The flag's design has changed slightly over the years, particularly as regards the number of points on the star. This originally had five points (E22), then six, and lately eight. Today this is the standard flag of the Salvation Army units (E23), and with the addition of each individual unit's name is so used throughout the world.

by Bernard John Foster, M.A., Research Officer, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington.

• Flag Collections: Dominion Museum, Wellington

• Flag Collections (MSS): Ball Collection (MSS), Turnbull Library
• Gordon Collection (MSS), Dominion Museum. Flags of All Nations, G.B. Admiralty (1889) (1907) (1930) (1948)
• Flags of the World, Carr, H. G. (1961)
• C.O. 209/1 (MSS), Colonial Office (1934)
• G. 28/3(Enclosures to Government Despatches) (MSS) (1867)
• M.A. 24/13 (Flags Requested File of Maori Affairs Department) (MSS) (1902). (The above MSS references are held in National Archives.) Laurenson Papers (MSS), Turnbull Library
• New Zealand Gazette: 1869, p. 556
• 1874, p. 122; 1899, p. 2167; 1939, p. 1548.Appendices to the Journal of the House of Representatives: 1908, A. 1, p. 17
• 1909, A. 2, p. 7; Regulations for the R.N.Z.A.F. and Air Board Orders (1952)
• R.N.Z.N. Regulations and Instructions (1958)
• The New Zealand Wars, Cowan, J. (1955).

Many shipping companies have, at various times, been interested in the New Zealand service, and a full catalogue of their house flags would possibly run to several hundreds. A flag (A19) with a long continuous association with New Zealand is that which has been flown successively by the Tyser Line (1886), the Commonwealth and Dominion Line (1914), and the Port Line (1916). Richardson and Co., Napier (A20), was the first shipping company formed in New Zealand (1859), and their flag has become well known on the eastern coasts. The flag of the Northern Steamship Co. (A21) has been seen in northern waters since the company's formation in 1881. The New Zealand Shipping Co. (1873) always shows a pennant above its house flag. This dates from the days of sail when the pennant was flown to indicate that the ship was a steamer. The Union Steamship Co's flag (A22) has been in use since 1875. Mention has already been made of the Shaw Savill and Albion Co's. flag (A23). This has been displayed by Shaw Savill ships since 1858, but before this was used by ships belonging to Messrs Willis and Gann (established 1842). As this was only two years after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi it lends a certain credibility to the belief that the company adopted the New South Wales Gazette version of the flag of the independent tribes – suitably altered by the omission of the fimbriation.

The flag of the South Pacific Trading Co., formed in the 1870s under the aegis of Sir Julius Vogel, placed the initial letters of the company's name upon the red panels of Queen Makea's (of Rarotonga) personal standard. Among the many other maritime flags which have been flown in New Zealand waters are those of the Kamo Colliery Co. (North Auckland) (E2) and of the “Circular Saw” Line which operated from Auckland (E1). A version of the latter, with the saw teeth pointing in the reverse direction, is now used by Henderson and Macfarlane Ltd., of Auckland. Another interesting flag is that which used to be flown on shore stations on the Kaipara mail run to indicate to passing steamers that there was mail to be collected (E3).

Maori “King” Flags

Recognising that the Union Jack was the symbol of British power, and rejecting the Treaty of Waitangi from which that power derived, the Maori tribes who banded together to elect a King sought a similar mana for their monarch. The three flags (F7) hoisted on 23 April 1857 when Te Wherowhero accepted kingship emphasised this by carrying the words “Kingi” (King) and “Niu Tireni” (New Zealand). The flag of the King movement is also the personal flag of the “King” and is flown at his residence at Turangawaewae (Ngaruawahia), and precedes him when he visits the other maraes which recognise his authority. When the “King” dies his flag is interred with him and a new one is made for his successor. The flag is strictly tapu and is kept by a hereditary custodian.

A special “King” flag (E4) was hoisted at Ngaruawahia in 1861, probably in conjunction with Ta-whiao's accession. The blue and yellow device represents the three islands of New Zealand. Another version of this flag, recorded about the same time, shows the device in the form of three four-pointed stars. From time to time recruiting parties toured North Island villages on behalf of the movement. In January 1864 two special recruiting flags (E5 and 6) were carried by a party which visited Waiapu in Poverty Bay.

Hauhau Flags

The Hauhaus believed that the British flag possessed mana of itself, and that it was thus a particular manifestation of divine power. Te Ua also believed that the Europeans worshipped a terrible deity to whom the military did homage around the flagpole every morning and evening. It is little wonder, therefore, that the Hauhaus gave much attention to their flags and “Niu Pole” ceremonies. Hauhaus usually showed three flags in their poles – a pennant, “Riki”, which was a war flag; the flag of the prophet, apostle, or priest who presided over the ceremony; and “Ruru” – the flag of peace. The relative positions of Riki and Ruru showed whether or not the meeting was a peaceful one. The flags seen at Tataroa (F6) in 1865 were warlike and the Pakeha observer felt himself fortunate to escape with his life.

Te Ua's personal flag (10 ft × 3 ft 6 in.) bore the legend “Kenana” (Canaan) showing that he identified the Maoris with the Jews. The standard of the Hauhau “movement”, and the largest flag ever flown in New Zealand (22 ft 10 in. × 12 ft 4 in.), bore a life-size figure of Te Matairenga – the Maori God of War – challenging the enemy to fight (E8). Patara, one of the five “apostles” of Hauhauism, possessed a handsome flag, “Rura” – a pacifier, which represented the Angel Michael and also the gospel (E9). Kereopa, one of the “apostles” and Volkner's murderer, flew a grey bordured pennant. Titokowaru, the Hauhau guerilla leader in Taranaki, flew a red war pennant with white devices in his campaign against Whitmore (F3). Peehi Turoa, the upper Wanganui chief who signed the Treaty of Waitangi but who remained hostile to the Europeans, lost his flag “Paerangi” after the Battle of Moutoa (1864). In design this flag is reminiscent of the “King” flags (E10). When colonial troops occupied Omarunui Pa (Hawke's Bay) on 12 October 1866, they captured a pennant (6 ft × 2 ft 6 in.) (E24). Note the direction of the cross. One of the most famous Maori rebel flags was that captured at Gate Pa in April 1864 (E11). The star, believed to represent the Star of Bethlehem, is in the ascendant. A lesser known but more colourful flag was hoisted by the rebels at Papatupu, on the Waitotara River, in 1868 (E12). The Maoris were fond of long whiplike pennants. The one shown (F2) was flown by Hauhaus in the Bay of Plenty and measures 16 ft × 1 ft 6 in. Note the red fimbriation on two sides of the blue, and the white fimbriation around the outer edges of the red tip.

Te Kooti Flags

Te Kooti, like Te Ua, believed in the “power” of flags and used many during his campaigns, altering their designs and symbolism as his fortunes under them waxed or waned. His most fabulous war flag, “Te Wepu” (the whip) – measuring 52 ft × 4 ft – was originally made by the nuns at the Greenmeadows Mission School for the chiefs of the friendly Ngati Kahungunu. Te Kooti captured it in 1868 and retained it until 7 February 1870, when Gilbert Mair captured it near Rotorua (F8). Te Kooti lost another “powerful” flag at Te Po(u)rere. This measures 6 ft × 2 ft 8 in. The symbols, which were supposed to be exceptionally potent, have never been explained (E13). Tuwharetoa Maoris from Tokaanu used a handsome flag (E14) in their campaigns under Te Kooti. The colonial forces saw another of Te Kooti's flags in the Opepe engagement in 1869 (E15). It was never captured and nothing is known of its later history. In February 1870 Colonel McDonnell captured the flag flown by Te Kooti's forces at Tapapa (north of Putaruru) on 25 January 1870 (E16). The stars are similar to those used in “King” flags, and the green and black device in the top left-hand corner was at first mistaken for the Union Jack.

Maori “Queen” and Tribal Flags

As the Maoris are so fond of flags, it is not surprising that the Government and other organisations adopted the practice of presenting standards to chiefs and tribes as a reward for their loyal services during the Maori Wars, the flags themselves being unique in that only one of each was made. Some of these, such as “Te Rakau i Mataahu”, which Queen Victoria presented to Major Ropata in the 1860s, incorporated the British Red Ensign with special devices. But those presented by the Government usually consisted of the New Zealand Red Ensign (12 ft × 6 ft, with trunk and halyards) with the name of the hapu, or of a notable ancestor, worked or printed on the fly. Maoris preferred this flag because red was a colour denoting rank and mana. Moreover, the hapu that could boast a genuine “Queen” flag was bound to acquire great prestige in the eyes of less fortunate hapus. The Maoris of the Ngati Makino tribe of Otamarakau Pa (near Rotorua) requested a flag in August 1902, and this (E17) was duly presented by the Government. Some times the hapu specified the design it wanted, as did the Whakarewarewa hapu on the accession of Edward VII (E18). In commemoration of the Wanganui tribes' victory over the Hauhaus at Moutoa Island (14 May 1864), the ladies of the town presented a large silken flag, of their own design, to the local chiefs (E19). In this the centrepiece of the crown is gold, while the small device below represents (in their natural colours) Maori and European hands clasped in friendship.

In 1894, in order to strengthen their hold among the East Coast tribes, the Church of England presented flags to many hapus. One of these, the flag of the subtribe of Rongomai-Wahine at Opoutama, is still used on ceremonial occasions.