Grape Growing and Wine Making

Grape vines were first planted by the Rev. Samuel Marsden at Kerikeri in 1819. James Busby who came to the Bay of Islands in 1833 as the British Resident, planted vines at Waitangi and made wine, some of which he sold to the Imperial troops stationed at the Bay of Islands. Charles Darwin, when he visited New Zealand in 1835, observed grapes growing at Waimate and recorded this in his book, A Naturalist's Voyage Round the World. French settlers established vineyards in 1840 at Akaroa, in the South Island. Wine was made commercially at the Bay of Islands from 1856 to 1866 and, in 1865, French Roman Catholic missionaries established a vineyard in Hawke's Bay for producing sacramental wines. Lack of experience in growing vines in the New Zealand soils and climate handicapped early attempts to establish vineyards. The advent of the root-destroying phylloxera insect in the Auckland Province about 1890 retarded progress there for a time, but quarantine measures checked the migration of the insect. It was not until 1964 that phylloxera was found to have migrated to the extensive vineyards of Hawke's Bay. Areas further south are still free from phylloxera. In 1898 the Government set aside an area at Te Kauwhata as an agricultural experimental station, the first experimental wines being made there in 1902. Most of the vineyards throughout New Zealand have been established from stock and scion wood supplied from the Te Kauwhata station, which is still the centre of viticultural research. One of its greatest contributions has been the importation, testing, and distribution of a large range of grape varieties.

Viticulture made little real progress until the turn of the century, when a few large vineyards were established in Auckland and Hawke's Bay, and by 1914 the area had increased to approximately 280 acres of wine grapes, producing 90,000 gallons, and 105 acres of table grapes. There was a gradual increase until 1938 when import control regulations raised the duty on imported wines, reducing the amount imported. In 1939 there were an estimated 422 acres of vineyards, producing 174,000 gallons of wine. During the Second World War, with an influx of American servicemen and an acute shortage of all spirits, there was a ready market for New Zealand wines and large new areas were planted in vines. Wine production rose quickly and much inferior wine was marketed. In 1946 a Royal Commission on licensing investigated the wine industry and made recommendations for improvements. A more competitive market has since brought more efficient production and better wines.

New Zealand wines have won a number of awards in international wine competitions. Restrictions on the importation of wines and spirits and the high taxation on spirits and beer have served to promote sales of local wine. Production has, however, always rapidly overtaken and exceeded the demand. In 1957 a Select Committee was appointed to inquire into the state and prospects of the wine-making industry. This led to easier sales of local wines, with a fresh impetus to further production.

Production

In 1964 there were 137 licensed grape-wine makers and production was estimated at 1,604,428 gallons from the estimated total area of 1,045 acres in vineyards. In 1960 the Department of Agriculture conducted a precise field survey of the vineyards and the actual area covered by vines, excluding headlands and other working areas, was 958 acres. Grape-wine production in 1960 was 878,148 gallons. There were 863 acres in wine grapes, 72 acres in table grapes, and 23 acres in grapes for juice. Vineyards were located mainly in Auckland (425 acres), Hawke's Bay (387 acres), Waikato (63 acres), Gisborne (45 acres), Northland (21 acres), Thames (10 acres), Bay of Plenty (3 acres), and the South Island (4 acres).

Varieties

The most extensively grown grape in 1960 was Albany Surprise. It occupied 145 acres and was mainly grown for table use and for grape juice. The variety originated as a mutation of the American grape Isabella in a vineyard at Albany, near Auckland, hence the name. The two leading wine varieties were the Franco-American hybrid grapes called Baco 22A (107 acres), and Seibel 5455 (68 acres), followed by Chasselas (53 acres), Black Pinot (52 acres), Palomino (50 acres), and Riesling Sylvaner (45 acres). These last four grapes are vinifera or European grapes. Then followed Seibel 4643 (43 acres), Gamay Gloriod (34 acres), Pedro Ximines (29 acres), Seibel 5437 (27 acres), Baco No. 1 (25 acres), Iona (23 acres), Seibel 5409 (17 acres), Cabernet (16 acres), Black Hamburgh (15 acres), Malbec (14 acres), Baco 9–11 (11 acres), White Muscat varieties (11 acres), and Niagara (10 acres). These include vinifera, hybrid, and American varieties. There were many minor varieties. Vineyard extensions since 1960 have been mainly with the varieties Palomino, Pinotage, Riesling Sylvaner, and various Franco-American hybrids.

The large vineyard areas of Auckland and Hawke's Bay together comprise almost 85 per cent of the national total. In Hawke's Bay vinifera varieties predominate, while in Auckland these are subordinate to the Franco-American hybrids. Most of the Auckland production comes from numerous small growers, mainly of Yugoslav origin, whereas in Hawke's Bay several large vineyards accounted for most of the grapes grown.

New Zealand growers should be grateful to the French vine genetists for the Franco-American hybrid grapes. These were imported by the Department of Agriculture from 1927 to 1930. Because of their fertility under adverse climatic conditions and resistance to fungous diseases, the Franco-American hybrids have made viticulture in the higher rainfall areas (Auckland and Northland) far more economical than it would have been with vinifera grapes.

Equipment and hygiene in most New Zealand wineries compare more than favourably with those overseas. Vineyard management generally conforms to a high standard of efficiency and operations are, on an average, more highly mechanised than in many other countries.

Although the New Zealand climate is recognised as being particularly well-suited to the production of still and sparkling white table wines, the people, like most who are of British descent, prefer the stronger sweet wines, such as sweet sherry, port, muscat, and madeira types. Though the industry has mainly produced these sweet fortified wines, it has also kept pace with the growing demand for table wines. In 1960 table wines comprised nearly 16 per cent of all wine made. Production of dry sherry has also increased.

Up to the present the high cost of grape production in New Zealand and the traditional bias of overseas wine markets have discouraged concerted efforts to develop a wine export trade. Greater interest has, however, recently been displayed by the industry in this direction and the prospects for export to Pacific countries have been rather encouraging. There is also a largely unexplored potential on the home market for good outdoor dessert grapes and grape juice beverage.

To assess the prospects for the production of commercial brandy in New Zealand, the Government granted experimental brandy distillation licences to some wineries in Auckland and Hawke's Bay. These experimental brandy distillations commenced in 1964 in conjunction with similar trials at the Te Kauwhata Horticultural Research Station.

Dessert Grapes

The best-quality dessert grapes are produced in glasshouse vineries and are much dearer than those grown outdoor. In 1960 there were approximately 439,000 sq. ft. in glasshouse vineries, mainly at Auckland (215,100 sq. ft.), Canterbury (54,150 sq. ft.), Manawatu (53,700 sq. ft.), and Oamaru (43,700 sq. ft.).

by Francis Berrysmith, R.D.OEN, Government Viticulturist, Department of Agriculture, Auckland.

Commercial production of stone fruit in New Zealand is practically restricted to five species of the genus Prunus; namely, P. persica, peaches (including nectarines); P. salicina, Japanese plums; P. armeniaca, apricots; P. domestica, European plums; and P. avium, sweet cherries.

There are few districts where stone-fruit trees of one kind or another cannot be grown, but climate has an important effect on cropping. In the warmer places, partly because of lack of winter chilling, apricots, cherries, and European plums rarely crop satisfactorily. In the colder parts one limiting factor is the incidence of late spring frosts, which destroy blossoms or young fruit, while in some districts comparatively low summer temperatures do not allow the fruit to develop full flavour. Commercial growing is confined largely to a few fairly welldefined areas, which have various advantages in soil, climate, or nearness to market.

Main Districts (in Order of Size)

Central Otago, particularly around Alexandra and Roxburgh, with an area of approximately 1,600 acres, produces all five kinds of fruit, including about 80 per cent of New Zealand's total crop of apricots, 50 per cent of the cherries, and 25 per cent of the peaches. The soil is well drained, the climate is good, with a low rainfall, and low winter and high summer temperatures. In certain seasons the area is subject to late spring frosts, which would often destroy the apricot crop if fire pots were not extensively used. There is some local processing, but much of the fruit is distributed to the markets of the South Island, and apricots and cherries are sent to North Island markets as well.

Hawke's Bay, mainly around Hastings, has about 1,100 acres, three-quarters of which are in peaches, with a high proportion of canning varieties. Japanese plums are also grown extensively, but few of other kinds. Much of the orchard soil is deep and fertile and there is a reasonably good climate, with adequate rainfall, sometimes too wet during the harvesting period, with an occasional damaging late spring frost. Considerable quantities are canned locally, but much of the fruit is sent to the main North Island markets.

Auckland, within about 25 miles of the city, with an area of about 800 acres, produces mainly peaches and Japanese plums, which are practically all sold as fresh fruit. Several types of soil are used, some far from ideal, and rainfall is generally too high, but these disadvantages are outweighed by closeness to the largest market in New Zealand.

Smaller Districts

Canterbury, mainly near Christchurch City, on an area of 240 acres, grows all five kinds of stone fruit, especially apricots. There is no processing and most of the fruit is sold locally, though some apricots are shipped to the North Island. Nelson, in the Waimea Valley and near Motueka, has 220 acres, largely in peaches, much of the crop being canned locally. Poverty Bay, around Gisborne, with 75 acres, grows mostly peaches for canning. The Waikato, at Te Kauwhata and close to Hamilton City, with 75 acres, produces mainly peaches and Japanese plums for local sale. Marlborough, close to Blenheim, with 60 acres, grows peaches and cherries, the latter particularly for North Island markets. South Canterbury – North Otago, especially near Kurow, has some 60 acres in apricots, cherries, and peaches, mainly for South Island markets.

Varieties of Stone Fruit Grown (in Order of Harvesting), and Number of Trees (in Thousands), 1963

*Prunus cerasifera, but included in European plums for convenience

Production

Production is steadily increasing, but can fluctuate widely from season to season. The main influences are the incidence of late spring frosts (which can affect particularly the apricot crop in Central Otago), disease (e.g., brown rot), and droughts (which prevent the fruit sizing normally and induce premature ripening). Much of the peaches and apricots are processed (mainly canned), but most nectarines, plums, and cherries are sold as fresh fruit. In some places orchards do a considerable retail trade, but the greater part of the crop is sold through the auction markets in the main centres. There is no organised distribution system, so that returns tend to be erratic, with alternate gluts and shortages in particular markets.

Pests and Research

Stone fruit is attacked by many insect pests, physiological disorders, and fungous, bacterial, and virus diseases. The most serious of those affecting the actual trees are silver leaf, caused by the fungus Stereum purpureom, and blast of stone fruit, due to the bacterium Pseudomonas syringae. The former, in particular, takes a steady toll each year, more especially of peach trees. No satisfactory economic control has yet been developed for either of these diseases. The main disease attacking the fruit is brown rot, caused by the fungus Sclerotinia fructicola. Incidence fluctuates widely from season to season and from district to district; in some seasons, in spite of frequent spraying, much fruit of individual varieties may be lost just before harvest. Research on these and other problems is being carried out by Plant Diseases and Fruit Research Divisions of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and field trials are being made by the Horticulture Division of the Department of Agriculture.

Varieties

Some of the varieties grown are old standard overseas ones brought here either direct from England or through Australia in the early days of commercial planting, from 1870 onwards. Others having since been imported at various times from Australia and, to a lesser extent, from the United States (e.g., many of the Japanese plums introduced by Luther Burbank). A few, such as Golden Queen peach and Goldmine nectarine, were raised in New Zealand.

by Alfred Thomas John Watts, B.A., Horticulture Division, Department of Agriculture, Hamilton.

Apples and Pears

Apples and pears were first introduced into New Zealand in 1819 by the Rev. Samuel Marsden, who planted trees, brought from New South Wales, on the Church Missionary Society's station established earlier that year at Kerikeri, Bay of Islands. In 1835 the Society reported that apples and pears were flourishing on a number of their stations in the North Island.

Growth of Commercial Production

Domestic orchards supplied the needs of the growing colony from 1840 until crops became seriously affected by introduced pests and diseases. Towards the end of the century the increasing demand for fruit led to the wide establishment of semicommercial orchards, but, due to ignorance of disease control, the yield was poor. The passing of the Orchard and Garden Pests Act in 1903 and the Diseases Act in 1908 led to increased production. In 1899 the first trial shipment of apples and pears to the United Kingdom, carried in cool storage by the S.S. Papanui from Lyttelton, had earned a fair price, and returns from a Nelson shipment in 1910 were also encouraging. With prospects of an export market, and a good local demand, apple and pear orchards expanded rapidly from 1910 to 1916 and for several years after the First World War. Exports, temporarily interrupted by the war, rose from the pre-war figure of 68,000 bushels to 112,000 bushels in 1922. The industry has now become firmly established. (In 1964 apple orchards covered 8,790 acres; pear, 1,445 acres.)

Apples are commercially produced successfully over a 750-mile range of latitude, with a consequent great variety of climates. The main apple districts of Nelson and Hawke's Bay are extremely sunny, with a moderate rainfall, which makes them especially suitable for this crop. Auckland, almost subtropical, and Central Otago, semi-arid with hot summers and cold winters, are the northern and southern limits of commercial apple growing. Central Otago and Marlborough apple orchards need irrigation; in other districts there is enough rain for tree growth and cropping, though irrigation is becoming more used in the drier areas. Late spring frosts often cause damage in Central Otago, and orchard heating with oil-burning firepots is then essential to protect crops. In some years damaging frosts strike Canterbury and Hawke's Bay. Apples are grown on soils ranging from sandy loams to shallow clays. The clays predominate in Nelson and Auckland orchards and those of part of the Loburn area north of Christchurch. In Hawke's Bay and most other districts the soils are alluvial and more fertile.

The average annual production of apples for 1960–64 was 4,670,000 bushels, an increase of 28 per cent over the preceding four-year average. The following table shows production in the main districts:

Exports for the same period averaged about two million bushels. The balance of the crop supplies the local markets from January to early December by means of long-term cool storage of late varieties. Processing factories take up to 460,000 bushels annually.

Harvest runs from January to May. The main varieties in order, with months in which harvesting begins are: January – Gravenstein; February – Cox's Orange Pippin, Kidd's Orange Red, Ballarat Seedling; March – Golden Delicious, Jonathan, Delicious; April – Sturmer Pippin, Rome Beauty, Granny Smith, Dougherty.

Pears

Pears are usually grown with apples, and in the same districts. Pears, being more tolerant of water than apples, are usually planted on the orchard flats. The average annual production of pears for 1960–64 was 843,000 bushels. Hawke's Bay (390,000) and Nelson (264,000) are important pear districts. The quantity of pears exported varies from about 20,000 bushels in light-crop years up to 150,000 in heavy. The local market is supplied from late January to December by cool storage of late varieties. About 140,000 bushels a year are processed, Williams' Bon Chretien being the main variety canned. Pears are harvested from January to April in this order of main varieties: William's Bon Chretien, Louise Bonne de Jersey, Packham's Triumph, Beurre Bosc, Winter Cole, P. Barry, Kieffer's Hybrid, and Winter Nelis.

Quinces

Quinces thrive in all parts of the country, but commercial production is relatively unimportant. The average annual crop (chiefly Smyrna) is 20,000 bushels, produced mainly in Auckland and Hawke's Bay. By 1964 the area in quinces was 24 acres.

Organisation

The Apple and Pear Marketing Act of 1948 vests the purchase and marketing of the apple and pear crop in the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board, on which the Government and producers are represented. Growers are organised in many district associations affiliated to a national body, the New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation Ltd.

by Charles Edwin Woodhead, Horticultural Advisory Officer (Pip Fruit), Department of Agriculture, Palmerston North.

• Orchardist of New Zealand (Supplement), Mar 1960, “Official Survey of the Fruitgrowing Industry of New Zealand (1958)”
• Ibid., Feb 1956, “A Review of the Chief Commercial Apple and Pear Varieties Grown in New Zealand”, Woodhead, C. E.
• New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, Vol. 98, Jan, Feb, 1959, “History of Fruitgrowing in Nelson”, Adamson, N. J.

Although no part of New Zealand is actually “subtropical”, the climate is mild enough in much of the Auckland Province to produce successfully certain kinds of citrus and other subtropical fruits. Early European settlers introduced these plants. The earliest record is of a few sweet-orange pips brought from Sydney by the wife of James Kemp, one of the missionary party which arrived at Kerikeri, Bay of Islands, in August 1818. From these seeds Mrs Kemp raised two trees which survived for more than 100 years, one at Kerikeri and the other at Waimate North. As the colony grew, there were many more introductions of various kinds of citrus, and between 1875 and 1880 the first commercial citrus orchards were planted, the largest being at Whangarei. Today a relatively small but useful citrus industry, closely associated with the production of certain other subtropical fruits, is established at Kerikeri, Auckland, Bay of Plenty, and Gisborne. Enough lemons and grapefruit are now grown for the local market during the season, but large amounts of sweet oranges and mandarins still have to be imported each year from the Cook Islands, Australia, and other countries.

Varieties of Citrus

The main kinds of citrus grown commercially in New Zealand include “Lisbon” and “Eureka” type lemons, “Meyer” lemons, so-called New Zealand grapefruit (“Poorman” orange, selected strains), “Wheeny” grapefruit, sweet oranges (mainly navels), mandarins, and tangelos (mandarin/grapefruit hybrids). Successful use of Poncirus trifoliata as a rootstock for citrus trees has made it possible to produce oranges and mandarins of consistently high quality under the marginal local climate; hence the planting of these fruits has been encouraged. This trend is expected to continue and there may be many more local oranges and mandarins in future.

Other Fruits

Many other subtropical fruits have been introduced and are often grown as novelties in home gardens. Commercial production is concerned mainly with two kinds of fruit which are not cultivated on a large commercial scale elsewhere in the world, even in their countries of origin – the tree tomato, Cyphomandra crassifolia (Syn. C. betacea), a native of Brazil and Peru, and the Chinese gooseberry, Actinidia chinensis, which originates from the Yangtse Valley in China. Passionfruit, Passiflora edulis, feijoas, Feijoa sellowiana, and avocados, Persea americana, are also grown commercially.

*Many recent plantings of these varieties are not yet bearing.

Marketing

The New Zealand Citrus Marketing Authority at present markets the oranges and lemons. It is a growers' cooperative, set up by the Citrus Marketing Authority Regulations of 1953, and it sells fruit to Fruit Distributors Ltd. at agreed prices. Other citrus and subtropical fruits are sold by auction or by growers direct to buyers. Strong competition for world markets from many other countries more ideally suited for citrus growing makes it unlikely that citrus fruits will become an important New Zealand export. But Chinese gooseberries, which grow very well here, show considerable export promise. Small annual shipments of up to 50 tons have been well received in Britain, Australia, and North America, and more are likely to be exported in future.

by William Arthur Fletcher, B.SC., formerly Senior Scientific Officer, Fruit Research Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

• D.S.I.R. Bulletin No. 53 (1937), “A Preliminary Survey of the Citrus Industry in New Zealand”, Hamilton, W. M.

Berry-fruit growing was one of the first horticultural industries to be established in the colony. It reached its peak in the early 1900s when, to meet a demand for jam fruit, large areas of raspberries and strawberries were grown in Nelson, Central Otago, Canterbury, and the Wairarapa (Wellington). Between the two world wars there was a decline, due to a combination of disease and economic and climatic causes. Interest was renewed after improved strawberry varieties had been introduced in 1950, stimulated by higher prices for other berries. Present production, though increasing, does not meet the needs for fresh fruit, fruit for canning, and for quick freezing and jam making. Raspberry and other berry pulp for jam making was formerly imported from Britain, Australia, and Holland. During 1960–61 some 800,000 lb valued at £(N.Z.)48,000 were imported. Imports of fresh berry fruits and of berry pulp during 1962–63 are set out in the following table. (There have been no further imports.)

*From Australia and Holland.

†From Holland.

[Although later figures are not available it would appear that there has been little change in the averages given here. Ed.]

Raspberries are grown chiefly in the South Island, mostly in Nelson and Canterbury. Strawberries are grown in both Islands, mainly in Auckland and South Canterbury. Black currants tend to be restricted to Canterbury and Wellington. Commercial gooseberry production is almost entirely limited to Wellington. Most of the crop is sold for use in the home. Raspberries alone are processed in quantity (about 40 per cent of production), their marketing being organised by statutory producer committees in the main districts. Berry-fruit growing is usually associated with other farming or horticultural work, except for specialised strawberry growing in Auckland.

Popular varieties include Lloyd George and Marcy raspberries, Talisman, Red Gauntlet, and Captain Cook strawberries, Roaring Lion and Farmers Glory gooseberries. Many varieties of black currants are grown; new plantings favour Goliath and Cotswold Cross. Major disease problems are virus of strawberry, raspberry bud moth (Carposina adreptella), gall mite (Eriophyes ribes) of black currants, and “dryberry” of boysenberries, recently identified as downy mildew (Peronospora rubi). Research on berryfruits is carried out at the Horticultural Research Station, Levin (Department of Agriculture), Plant Diseases Division, Auckland (Department of Scientific and Industrial Research), and Marsden Research Station, Nelson (Cawthron Institute).

by Charles Stuart Richardson, A.C.S.F., Horticultural Advisory Officer (Stone Fruits), Department of Agriculture, Christchurch.

• Statistical Report of External Trade of New Zealand for Year 1961, New Zealand Customs Department (1963)
• Orchardist of New Zealand, Vol. 34, Apr 1961, “Dryberry of Boysenberries, caused by Downy Mildew”, Smith, H. C., and Newhook, F. J.
• New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, Vol. 97, Dec 1958, “Berryfruit Growing Trends and Prospects” Richardson, C. S.
• New Zealand Commercial Grower, Vol. 16, Apr 1961, “Berry Fruit Survey 1960”, Anon.

Frostfish (Lepidopus caudatus), or para of the Maoris, is a long, narrow ribbon of burnished silver, from 3 to 5 ft in length. It derives its name from the fact that numbers of these fish come ashore around the coast, usually in clear frosty weather. It is really a warm-water fish and it becomes distressed by cold conditions in winter when it ventures too far south. The flesh is excellent and, on the infrequent occasions when it is offered for sale, commands a high price.

by Arthur William Baden Powell, Assistant Director, Auckland Institute and Museum.

(1889–1963).

Seventh Governor-General of New Zealand.

A new biography of Freyberg, Bernard Cyril appears in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography on this site.

Bernard Cyril Freyberg was born in London on 21 March 1889 and was the son of James Freyberg and of his second wife, Julia née Hamilton, of an Argyllshire family. When he was two years old his parents emigrated to New Zealand, where his father joined the Public Service in Wellington as a surveyor. Freyberg was educated at Wellington College, where he became noted for his prowess at sports. He excelled at swimming and won the New Zealand junior swimming title in 1905 and the senior title five years later. When he left school he took up dentistry and, after training with J. S. Fairchild, of Wellington, acted as locum tenens for A. L. Yule in Morrinsville. While there he swam down the Waihou River from Te Aroha to Paeroa – a distance of about 14 miles. On 18 January 1912 he was gazetted as a Second Lieutenant in the 6th Hauraki Regiment (Territorials), but relinquished this a month later when he accepted a position at Levin where he remained, with one interruption – a trip to Australia as a stoker in the Maunganui – until early in 1914, when he went to San Francisco.

Immediately on the outbreak of the First World War Freyberg went to England and volunteered for service. G. S. Richardson arranged for him to join the 7th “Hood” Battalion of the Royal Naval Brigade, and he was on the Belgian front in September 1914. Rupert Brooke, the poet, was an officer in the 2nd “Anson” Battalion and he and Freyberg began a friendship which lasted until the former's death at Lemnos. In April 1915 the Brigade was sent to the Dardanelles. There, on the night of 24 April 1915, Freyberg volunteered to swim ashore in the Gulf of Saros to divert the Turks' attention from the main landing. Although under heavy firing, he escaped unscathed and his successful exploit earned him his first D.S.O. After the Gallipoli campaign Freyberg was sent to France. On 13 November 1916, when he was in command of the “Hood” Battalion near Beaumont Hamel, he won the Victoria Cross “by his splendid personal gallantry”. In the words of the official citation: “The personality, valour, and utter contempt of danger on the part of this single Officer enabled the lodgement in the most advanced objective of the Corps to be permanently held, and on this point d'appui the line was eventually formed”. He was wounded four times in this engagement. When the war ended Freyberg was a Temporary Brigadier with the 29th Division. He had won the V.C., the D.S.O. and two bars, the C.M.G., was mentioned six times in dispatches, and had been wounded nine times.

After the war Freyberg attended the Staff College at Camberley. From 1929 to 1931 he commanded the 1st Battalion, Manchester Regiment, and he was Assistant Quartermaster-General, Southern Command (1931–33), before becoming a General Staff Officer (first class) at the War Office. He retired from the Army in 1934, but was recalled in September 1939 to become General Officer Commanding the Salisbury Plains Area. In November 1939 the New Zealand Government invited him to command the New Zealand Division in the Middle East. For a short time in 1941 he was Allied Commander-in-Chief in Crete and was responsible for evacuating the troops there. He led the New Zealand Division through the Greek, African, and Italian campaigns, winning a third bar to his D.S.O. in Italy in 1945.

On 17 June 1946 Freyberg succeeded Lord Newall as Governor-General of New Zealand. He held this office, having his term extended, until 15 August 1952. In 1951 he was elevated to the peerage and took the style “Baron Freyberg of Wellington, New Zealand and Munstead, Surrey”.

From 1953 until his death Freyberg was Deputy Constable and Lieutenant-Governor of Windsor Castle. In addition to his military honours Freyberg was awarded the following honorary degrees: LL.D. (St. Andrews, 1922, and New Zealand, 1953) and D.C.L. (Oxford, 1945).

On 14 June 1922 Freyberg married Barbara, widow of the Hon. Francis Walter Stafford Maclaren, M.P., daughter of Sir Herbert Jekyll, K.C.M.G., of Munstead, Surrey. Freyberg died at Windsor on 4 July 1963 and was succeeded in his title by his only son.

As a soldier Freyberg became a legend in his own lifetime. Although his men thought him formidable, he won and retained their devotion, not only because he shared their dangers and discomforts but also because he was ever solicitous of their welfare. He would be found in the thick of any battle in which his troops were engaged and his apparent indifference to danger led Sir Winston Churchill to describe him as a “Salamander” – because he seemed to thrive in fire. A war correspondent who met him during the African campaign has left the following pen portrait of Freyberg the General: “He is a big man, over 6 feet, built like a Rugby forward. He has keen eyes which he squints suspiciously, a broad, red, fleshy face, sharp, hard mouth, and a curious high-pitched voice”. During his period as Commander of the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force, Freyberg won the confidence of the New Zealand Government and people to a remarkable degree and his choice as Governor-General was a popular one.

Although Freyberg's fame will inevitably rest upon his military career, two further facets of his life deserve passing mention. In 1922 he stood as Liberal candidate at the Cardiff-South parliamentary election. He polled second in the three-cornered contest, being defeated by the Conservative sitting member by 900 votes. During the war those privileged to read Freyberg's reports to the New Zealand Government were impressed by his fine style of writing and by his accurate and economical use of words. In 1933 Freyberg published A Study of Unit Administration, which became a staff college textbook on quarter-masters' logistics. In addition he wrote a book on wines, a subject on which he was an authority.

by Bernard John Foster, M.A., Research Officer, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington.

• Letters of J. M. Barrie (1942)
• Lieutenant-General Sir Bernard Freyberg, Hercus, C. A. (1946)
• General Lord Freyberg V.C. – An Unofficial Biography, Gates, P. S. (1963)
• The Times (London), 6 July 1963 (Obit)
• Freyberg, V.C.: The Man, 1939–1945, Stevens, W. G. (1965).

The first legislation relating to friendly societies was passed in England in 1793, and by the middle of last century the movement had many members. As might be expected, members when emigrating overseas were anxious to form lodges, and the first ones were established in the early years of settlement in New Zealand. Within two years of the meeting of the first New Zealand Parliament, in 1854, a Friendly Society Act was introduced. The preamble of this Act is of interest and reads as follows: “Whereas the protection and encouragement of Friendly Societies, for raising by voluntary subscriptions of the Members thereof separate funds for the purpose of affording relief and maintenance to the Members thereof in sickness, old age and for other purposes of a provident and benevolent nature is likely to be attended with very beneficial effects by promoting the happiness of individuals, and at the same time diminish public burdens; and as it is expedient to give protection to such Societies and the Funds thereby established, and to afford encouragement to form like Societies within the Colony of New Zealand: Be it therefore enacted by the General Assembly of New Zealand as follows:”.

Almost without exception the societies established in New Zealand were linked with societies in Great Britain, for the members arriving in New Zealand were anxious to retain their link with rituals and benefits with which they were familiar.

The 1856 Act did little more than authorise the establishment of societies in New Zealand and set out the form of the annual return that had to be made to the Registrar of the Supreme Court. A further amending Act was passed in 1867, the main changes being the provision for the appointment of a Registrar of Friendly Societies and also of a revising barrister for each province. The functions of the latter were to ensure that proposed rules of the various societies complied with the provisions of the Act. It was not, however, until the passing of the Friendly Societies Act 1877 that considerable changes were made. In 1874 a Royal Commission in the United Kingdom made a comprehensive study of friendly societies and the Commission's recommendations became law in England in 1875. This legislation was the basis of the 1877 Act in New Zealand which introduced the principle of quinquennial valuations of funds of societies, as well as providing for additional information to be contained in the annual returns and for the appointment of one revising barrister for the whole of New Zealand.

Some of the provisions of this Act are most interesting. One, based on the United Kingdom Act, provided that among the societies that might be registered under the Act were “Societies for the insurance to any amount against loss by death of neat cattle, sheep, lambs, swine and horses from disease or otherwise”. As far as can be ascertained, no such societies were ever formed in this country. Another provision, which still exists, was to provide for death certificates to be furnished for friendly society purposes at a cost of 1s. per copy – one of the few charges that has not increased for over 85 years.

A most important provision of the 1877 Act required the Registrar of Friendly Societies to make an annual report to Parliament, and the first report outlines some of the difficulties that arose with the passing of the Act. An Actuary was appointed whose first task was to “prepare a series of tables of rates of contributions corresponding to the benefits most usually granted by the friendly societies of the Colony. In view of the circumstances that the bulk of the settlers in New Zealand are of the same race as the inhabitants of the British Islands, having similar occupations and living in a climate which, while somewhat more temperate, assimilates in character to the English climate, and as there is in the Colony a comparative exemption from the evils attendant on the severity of the struggle for existence in the Mother country, it was concluded that the sickness and mortality among the members of friendly societies in this Colony might safely be expected to be, on an average, not in excess of that which obtains among the friendly societies in England”. Tables based on experience in England between 1866 and 1870 were used, an interest basis of 4 per cent being used. This interest rate is still the rate used in valuations today.

While the English tables served as a basis, they were not entirely satisfactory for it soon became evident that the mortality experienced in New Zealand was much below that of England. The allowance for sickness benefit was therefore inadequate. The passing of the 1877 Act did, however, result in contributions being charged more appropriate to the benefits offered, though it was not for many years that valuations of societies revealed surpluses instead of deficiencies. In his report for 1880 the Registrar stated that, at the time the Act was passed, only four of the 250 lodges in the colony charged premiums adequate to the benefits guaranteed. The chief complaint was that societies charged the same rate of contribution irrespective of age of entry, and it was only after years of effort that this system was finally broken down.

Thirty years were to elapse before further major legislative changes were passed. A Bill was drafted and circulated to interested parties in 1907 and, with some further amendments, was introduced into Parliament in 1908. Two clauses relating to the method of paying for death benefits were strongly opposed by the Ancient Order of Druids, and a special Parliamentary Committee was set up to hear representations concerning the Bill. Their report recommended that the controversial clauses remain in the Bill, but it was not until 1909 that it was proceeded with, and then only after dropping the disputed clauses. The new consolidation did, however, make considerable changes, chiefly of a technical nature, and brought the legislation up to date with that of the United Kingdom.

The popularity of friendly societies in this country is shown in the increases in the number of members in the following table:

This popularity can be readily understood, for the lodges provided not only a social centre for their members, but also benefits that were of very great value. These benefits were usually a sickness benefit, a death benefit and, what was often regarded as the major attraction, provision whereby, for a small sum, the member, his wife and children could obtain the services of a doctor without charge and to obtain any medicines, free of cost, that might be prescribed. At a later date auxiliary benefits to assist with hospital expenses were introduced.

People accustomed to the benefits of the existing social security scheme do not realise the worry and very often hardship for working people associated with illness in earlier years. In evidence given to the Parliamentary Committee in 1908, a witness for a large society stated: “A very large majority of the people who join a friendly society do so to get the benefits of doctor and medicine and regard them as worth the whole of their contributions”. The truth of this statement is indicated by the effect on membership of the societies of the introduction of the Social Security Act in 1938. In 1938 membership exceeded 113,700; in 1963 it was just over 66,000. The biggest drop occurred between 1938 and 1945 when the impact of the introduction of social security and the war caused a fall in membership of over 30,000 – about 27 per cent. Losses since then have been at a lower rate – below 2 per cent per year. The problem for the societies has been their inability to attract new members in sufficient numbers to cover losses by deaths and withdrawals.

Various attempts have been made to make the benefits more attractive and, in response to such requests, Parliament has enlarged the scope of the Friendly Societies Act to permit societies to operate holiday homes, convalescent homes for the aged, credit unions, and life insurance for members. The provision of life insurance for members was a natural extension of the original death benefit but, except for one society, the results from these extensions of activities have been small.

The decline in membership has not, however, been accompanied by a decrease in the funds of the societies. Total accumulated funds have increased from £5,280,000 in 1938 to £11,522,254 in 1963. This increase has been due to the extension of insurance activities and to increased earnings from interest during the past decade. Most of the funds are invested on first mortgage, although societies have recently been authorised to invest up to 5 per cent of their funds in company securities. In the light of the present situation, it seems inevitable that the New Zealand friendly societies will gradually disappear as the “Welfare State” widens the scope of its activities. Whether the organisations that remain will survive to carry on other functions or whether they will become insurance societies will probably not be clear for some years at least.

by Ian Gordon Lythgoe, M.COM., Chief Research Officer, the Treasury, Wellington.

• Annual Reports, Registrar of Friendly Societies
• Report and Minutes of Evidence, Friendly Societies Consolidation Bill Committee (1908)
• Voluntary Action, Lord Beveridge (1948).

The first public appearance of freemasons in New Zealand was at the laying of the foundation stone of St. Paul's Church in Auckland in 1841, for The New Zealand Herald and Auckland Gazette of 31 July 1841 reported that: “The Gentlemen of Auckland who are Freemasons appeared with the decorations and insignia of their Order” at the ceremony. Apparently, shortly after this date, steps were taken to form a local lodge and the first lodge under the constitution of the Grand Lodge of Ireland was opened in Auckland early in 1843.

This, however, was not the first meeting held in New Zealand, for freemasons had been active in Wellington and, after a preliminary meeting in August 1842, the first regular meeting of the new lodge was held in October 1842. This lodge was formed under the constitution of the Grand Lodge of England. It was not until 19 years later, in 1861, that the first lodge under the constitution of the Grand Lodge of Scotland appeared, naturally enough in Dunedin. With the three constitutions established in New Zealand, it might have been expected that rivalry and jealousy would have developed among them, but this does not appear to have been the case – on the contrary, the lodges seem to have fraternised and cooperated with one another.

One of the problems of the time was the delays inherent in communications with the parent bodies, and it was possibly in an attempt to overcome these difficulties that district or provincial lodges were established. By 1890, nine of these district lodges had been established under the various constitutions, but apparently the problems were not entirely overcome for in that year the Grand Lodge of New Zealand was formed.

The practice of benevolence and charity has always been a hallmark of freemasonry and, while it is not a benefit society undertaking to make payments in return for contributions, it has done much work in assisting the widows and children of deceased members and helping those members who, because of misfortune, need assistance. Orphanages have been maintained for many years, and a recent extension of activity has been the erection in Auckland of a home for the aged. Proposals for similar homes in other centres are being actively pursued.

There are over 700 lodges, or other groups of freemasons in New Zealand, and the two principal groups, the Grand Lodge of New Zealand and the Supreme Grand Royal Arch Chapter, have an aggregate membership of 58,000. This latter figure, however, makes no allowance for plural memberships.

It has long been customary for men to form societies, the activities of which are kept secret to the members. But friendly societies have been subject to broad control by Parliament, partly to facilitate their work and more especially because they undertake to pay benefits in return for contributions. Freemasonry, however, promises no monetary benefits and controls its own activities.