Offered by the press, periodicals, and the National Broadcasting Service. These are for unpublished work, and vary greatly in the value of the prize money and the quality of the entries attracted.

Among awards worth recording are:

The Landfall Awards. In 1953 the literary quarterly Landfall offered four poetry awards of £25 each; the winners were M. K. Joseph and Keith Sinclair. In 1956 two prose awards of £25 were offered for fiction and non-fiction. John Caselberg and Maurice Shadbolt were the winners, both with short stories.

The Otago Daily Times in 1961 sponsored a novel competition to mark its hundredth year of publication. First prize of £350 went to Errol Brathwaite for An Affair of Men.

Small prizes are offered by various of the “Little Magazines”, including Te Ao Hou, which endeavours to encourage good writing both in English and Maori.

The New Zealand Listener in association with the National Broadcasting Service has held occasional literary competitions. In 1936 W. Graeme Holder won a prize for a radio play. In 1946 John Gundry won both sections of a radio-play competition for prizes totalling £100. In 1949, to mark the proposed royal visit of King George VI, the Listener offered a £50 prize for an ode which should be “an expression of New Zealand's homage to the Crown”. The winner was Ruth France.

These have stimulated public interest and directed attention to promising writers. One major set of prizes is that associated with the National Centennial celebrations in 1940. First prize in the essay section went to M. H. Holcroft for The Deepening Stream; first prize for a short story went to Frank Sargeson (The Making of a New Zealander) and E. Midgeley. J. R. Hervey won the poetry prize: no first prize was awarded in drama. In the novel section, only one entry later achieved publication, Beryl McCarthy's Castles in the Soil, a third prize winner. Prize money ranged from £150 (the novel) to 20 (poetry).

Some of the Provincial Centennial celebrations subsequent to 1940 also provided literary awards. In 1948, to mark the centenary of Otago, the Otago Daily Times offered a prize of £200 for a work on a New Zealand historical theme. It was won by Georgina McDonald with the novel Grand Hills for Sheep. In 1950 the Canterbury Centennial Association conducted competitions for a one-act play, a radio play, a short story, an essay, and a poem, prizes being in all cases 30 guineas. In 1956 the Southland Provincial Centennial was marked by a competition for an unpublished play, the prize being local production plus £200. It was won by Dorothy Mary Black; Stella Jones's The Tree was placed second.

In 1960–61, the city of Wellington offered prizes as a feature of its festival. £100 was offered for an unpublished short story with a New Zealand background, £50 for a poem or sequence of poems. The winners were Maurice Shadbolt and Fleur Campbell.

The P.E.N. (New Zealand Centre) makes two annual awards for achievement by New Zealanders resident in the country. The Jessie Mackay Poetry Award (inaugurated in 1940) was at first for published or unpublished work. Up to 1955 major and minor prizes were given in each year; since that date, one major prize has been given, for published work only. Jessie Mackay (1864–1938) was a notable literary figure, poetical as well as polemical. Winners have been Douglas Stewart, Paula Hangar, R. I. F. Pattison, Mary Greig, Mary Stanley, Ruth Gilbert, James K. Baxter, Charles Spear, Pat Wilson, Paul Henderson, W. H. Oliver, Allen Curnow, M. K. Joseph, and Basil Dowling.

The Hubert Church Award for Prose was established in 1945, partly from a memorial bequest made to the P.E.N. by Mrs Catherine Church. Hubert Church was a poet, novelist, and critic who died in 1932. This award is for the best prose of any kind published in the previous year. Winners have been M. H. Holcroft, Lilian Keys, David Ballantyne, J. C. Beaglehole, Frank Sargeson, Janet Frame, Oliver Duff, E. H. McCormick, James Courage, Maurice Duggan, Dennis McEldowney, M. K. Joseph, Maurice Shadbolt, and Noel Hilliard.

In 1952 the value of both awards was raised to £25, and in 1959 to 50, with the aid of a subsidy from the Literary Fund. In 1964 the value of the Hubert Church Award was raised to £100.

The New Zealand Library Association offers the Esther Glen Award, a medal, for the most distinguished contribution to New Zealand literature for children, published in New Zealand during the year by an author resident in the country. Owing to the restricted field, it has been awarded only four times since its inauguration in 1945, to Stella Morice, A. W. Reed, Joan Smith, and Maurice Duggan.

The British Drama League holds an annual one-act-play competition.

The New Zealand Women Writers' Society in 1959 promoted the Katherine Mansfield Memorial Award. This, a biennial award, open to New Zealanders by birth or residence, offers a prize of 50 guineas each for a short story (published) and an essay (published or unpublished, as under local conditions a serious critical, biographical or historical essay would not easily reach print). The financial sponsor is the Bank of New Zealand, of whose board of directors Sir Harold Beauchamp, Katherine Mansfield's father, was member and chairman for many years. Winners of the award were Maurice Duggan and Elsie Locke (1959), C. K. Stead (1961), and Maurice Shadbolt (1963). A subsidiary prize went to a young Maori writer, Arapera Blanc in 1959.

Literary awards in New Zealand have until recent years been sporadic and unimportant. Before the National Centennial celebrations in 1940, no prizes of significance were offered to writers, except within the membership of academic or other restricted groups, or for the special purposes of the press. Personal awards are of three types: one is the prize offered in open competition for unpublished work, a kind of “talent quest”; another bestows a laureate blessing upon a published work. The third type of award in New Zealand is the scholarship, intended to support a writer of established promise during a further period of creative activity. Support for writing also takes the form of State grants, not to persons, but to publishers, to assist publications of value, whether periodicals or books; in a country with a necessarily limited reading public this is a valuable type of recognition for a literary work. The note “published with the aid of the New Zealand Literary Fund” has become a token of some merit.

Awards fall into five categories. Literary societies or other similar bodies have offered prizes, occasional or regular, often in the name of notable members of the past. Civic authorities, banks, and Government or other institutions have promoted competitions to commemorate anniversaries or accompany community festivities. Prizes have been offered by newspapers, by the National Broadcasting Service, and by various periodicals, either as an element in general policy, or to mark some birthday or other occasion. Academic prizes and scholarships are offered by the universities. Finally, there are the many activities of the Fund, including annual scholarships and awards, subsidies to publishers, and grants-in-aid to writers.

New Zealand differs from most countries in that the sale of liquor for drinking on the premises is to a considerable degree tied to the provision of accommodation on those premises. This tie was formerly even closer. With the introduction of restaurant and tavern licences it can no longer be regarded as a general principle of the law. Nevertheless, the Commission is obliged, in authorising new licences and reviewing existing ones, to have first regard to the need for accommodation in the particular locality and not to approve a tavern without taking into account its likely effect on accommodation hotels.

Another illustration of the favoured position of the hotel is the policy adopted towards wholesale licences. Except for New Zealand wine, no bottle licences exist in this country. But holders of wholesale licences may sell to the public in quantities of not less than 2 gallons, and many do so extensively. This is thought to have an adverse effect on the provision of accommodation. Consequently, the policy of the law is to see that new wholesale licences are issued only sparingly.

A striking feature and a significant indication of prevailing attitudes was the former legal dissociation of drinking from dancing and entertainment. Dancing and entertainment were forbidden on any premises where liquor might be sold. Public concern over abuses led in 1939 to the prohibition of drinking at or near any dance other than a purely private one. The wide scope of this prohibition so conflicted with the customs of a large section that the law became a farce and was modified in 1960. Relaxations have also been made, the effect of which is to allow dancing by hotel guests and, with the Commission's approval, dancing in restaurants and dancing and entertainments in hotels. No provision is made for the sale of liquor at a place of entertainment or a cabaret.

The subject of hours of sale currently attracts more attention in New Zealand than any other part of the liquor laws. In 1842 hours were fixed at 6 a.m. to 10 p.m. on weekdays and 1 p.m. to 7 p.m. on Sundays. The licensing Justices could grant an extension to midnight on weekdays. Sunday opening has been prohibited since 1881, an exception in favour of bona fide travellers being removed in 1904. The midnight extension was altered to 11 p.m. in 1893 and abolished in 1910. Six o'clock closing, which was introduced as a war measure in 1917, was made permanent in 1918. The present hours of sale to the public are from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. Hours of sale to persons genuinely staying at a hotel have never been restricted.

Although it did not apply to liquor with meals, and liquor may now be drunk by diners in hotels and restaurants until midnight, six o'clock closing remains a prominent feature of New Zealand's social life. In rural districts many workers have little opportunity to drink before six, and in places the law is widely disregarded. Everywhere a substantial section resents six o'clock closing. On the other hand, a referendum in 1949 decisively rejected a change in hours, and it is probable that a majority is still opposed to evening hours. The problem is complicated in the larger cities by the concentration of drinking places in the inner commercial area. For the present, the dilemma seems insoluble.

by Bruce James Cameron, B.A., LL.M., Legal Adviser, Department of Justice, Wellington.

• Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives, H. 38 (1946), Report of the Royal Commission on Licensing, 1946
• Ibid., I. 17 (1960), Report of the Parliamentary Committee on Licensing, 1960;Liquor Laws of New Zealand, Luxford, J. H. (3rd. ed. 1963)
• Grog's Own Country, Bollinger, C. V. I. (1959).

The present machinery for the control of the liquor trade outside licensing-trust districts is a mixture of central and local authority. The central body is the Licensing Control Commission. At a local level control is exercised through 22 licensing committees comprising a Magistrate as chairman and four members elected (except in the Chatham Islands) by the territorial local authorities. An appeal lies from the committees to the Supreme Court in some cases and to the Commission in all others, and from certain decisions of the Commission to the Supreme Court. The Commission decides what new licensed hotels, tourist houses, taverns, restaurants, and wholesale facilities are needed, fixes the standards to be complied with, and authorises the issue of the appropriate licence. In the case of a hotel or tavern, a poll of the residents of the locality may be demanded to decide whether the new licence is wanted. The Commission also grants charters to clubs authorising them to sell liquor to their members. A temporary but important function is to review all present licensed hotels and decide whether they should continue to be hotels or become taverns providing only drinking facilities. If it is decided that they are to be hotels they must provide the quantity and quality of accommodation required by the Commission. The Commission has a concurrent jurisdiction with the committees to prescribe and enforce standards. Committees grant licences to conduct business on premises licensed as hotels, tourist houses, and taverns and grant several minor licences – winemakers', wine resellers', ship, and booth licences. They renew and transfer licences.

Licences in force or authorised at 1 April 1965 included 1,102 hotel premises (including provisional hotel premises), 36 tourist-house premises, 38 restaurant, 169 wholesale, and 241 wine resellers' licences. There are four tavern and 13 (nine in Taranaki) tavern premises licences. At the same date there were 194 club charters, 72 of which (mostly older ones) authorise the sale of liquor for drinking off, as well as on, the premises.

The principles on which the liquor law of New Zealand rests are the necessity for anyone selling liquor to hold a licence, strict limitation of the number of licences (although there is no longer a fixed maximum), restriction of selling hours, and close regulation of the conduct of the trade and of the standard of accommodation, amenities, and services.

The effects of alcoholic liquor and its potentialities for abuse have led many countries to control its sale and consumption, and (mainly in English-speaking lands) there have been efforts to have its manufacture and sale prohibited altogether. In modern times in New Zealand every Government, whatever its political philosophy, has recognised that liquor cannot be treated as an ordinary article of commerce.

The sale, supply, and consumption of liquor are governed principally by the Sale of Liquor Act of 1962, which revised and restated the law and marked the culmination of reforms made in 1960 and 1961. The new legislation continues and, in some respects, tightens the close control of the liquor trade that has characterised our law for many years, and it has left some anomalies and illiberal features. It may be said, however, to have ended an era when the liquor laws were a reaction to frontier conditions and mirrored the social and moral attitudes of a small-town colonial community.

New Zealand's licensing laws have been frequently derided. An informed judgment on them is, however, impossible without some understanding of the conditions which gave rise to them, and the mores, ideals, and prejudices of the society in which they were enacted. The pre-1962 law was essentially enacted between 1881 and 1918. Its substance was originally in reasonable harmony with public opinion and social habits. The criticism that can be made is that the resistance of extremists and the fears of successive Governments allowed the legislation to become increasingly chaotic in form and delayed changes of substance too long after the law had become divorced from social facts and responsible opinion.

A licensing ordinance was passed in 1842, but for the first 40 years of the colony's history there was no effective restriction on the number of liquor outlets and virtually no control over the conditions in which liquor was sold. During this period and until the First World War, public drunkenness was much more common than it is today. In 1870, for example, drunkenness convictions were 16·7 per 1,000 of the population; in 1890, 9·1; and in 1910, 117; compared with an average of 2·0 for the years 1958–60.

Given the amount of excessive drinking and the grave social and moral evils that it produced, the influence of evangelical religion and social reform made the growth of a strong temperance and prohibition movement inevitable. The cause took on the fervour of a moral crusade. Led by some of the Protestant Churches, which placed great emphasis on the sin of drunkenness, it also appealed to many radicals and humanitarians who were aware of the harm drink did to the working man, his family, and his interests. It was no accident that Sir Robert Stout, a liberal and an agnostic, was a prominent prohibitionist. Nor is it surprising that the Women's Suffrage Movement was closely associated with the anti-liquor forces.

The Licensing Act of 1881 succeeded for the first time in comprehensively regulating and controlling the liquor trade and in stopping increases in the number of licences. From 1881 to 1918 the theme was increasing restriction. For many years it seemed that the process would end in national prohibition. The high-water marks were the polls of 1911, when 55·82 per cent of the voters supported prohibition (a majority of 60 per cent being required), and December 1919, when prohibition failed to secure the majority it needed by only 3,263 votes.

At first those opposed to the sale of liquor fought for an effective local option poll. This was secured in 1893, when provision was made for a triennial poll in districts corresponding to parliamentary electoral districts on the issues of continuance, reduction, and no licence. The majority required to carry no licence was 60 per cent. The prohibition forces, led by the New Zealand Alliance, sought unsuccessfully to have local option and, later, national prohibition decided by a bare majority. Despite the handicap, 12 out of 76 districts had carried no licence by 1908. Others had from time to time carried reduction, which was effected under the supervision of elected licensing committees. Publicans and accommodation licences in force decreased from 1,719 in 1894 to 1,257 in 1910, although the population had increased substantially.

The reduction issue was abolished in 1910. Local option polls were replaced in 1918 by a periodic nation-wide vote on the issues of continuance, State purchase and control, and prohibition, a vote that is still taken. Areas that had carried no licence were, however, to remain “dry” until a 60 per cent majority had voted for the restoration of liquor sales. Seven such districts remain, all in the suburbs of Auckland and Wellington.

The appeal of prohibition diminished after 1919. In 1925 over 47 per cent of the voters still favoured it. By 1935 the figure had sunk to 30 per cent, and there has since been a slow decline to 20 per cent in 1963. Despite this, there were no changes in the law from 1918 to 1944. When amendments did come they were mostly related to the machinery of control, rather than the substance of the law.

Following the carrying of restoration in Invercargill in 1943, legislation was passed for the public control of the liquor trade in that city through a licensing trust originally nominated, but elected since 1950. The experiment was successful and further legislation in 1947 and 1949 led to the setting up by popular vote of trust control in other former no-licence districts. In trust districts there are no licences and, broadly speaking, the trust itself decides what premises for the sale of liquor will be established and where they will be. Provision was also made for what are known as local trusts to operate individual new licences. Mainly for financial reasons these trusts have made little headway, and only two have established hotels.

Between 1910 and 1949 the number of hotels slowly decreased. Moreover, their distribution remained unchanged, reflecting the demographic conditions of 1881. Partly to provide a means to remedy this maldistribution and partly to improve standards and enforce licensees' legal obligations, a central authority, the Licensing Control Commission, was established in 1948. At the same time provision was made for a modest increase in the number of licences, the first in nearly 70 years. A number of other useful improvements were made. Many of the new provisions were the result of recommendations of a Royal Commission, whose report in 1946 exhaustively analysed the law and the operations of the liquor trade. The Royal Commission's principal proposals, which were of a radical nature, were, however, rejected.

Ling (Genypterus blacodes), or hokarari of the Maoris, grows up to 4 ft in length, with a weight of up to 30 lb, and looks just like a giant tadpole. The colour is reddish-purple, marbled and speckled in darker shades, and fading to pinkish below. The ling is very abundant in deep water from Cook Strait southwards. It is a good food fish, but not popular for some unaccountable reason.

by Arthur William Baden Powell, Assistant Director, Auckland Institute and Museum.

(1839–1926).

Artist.

A new biography of Lindauer, Gottfried appears in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography on this site.

Gottfried Lindauer was born on 5 January 1839 at Pilsen, Bohemia (now in Czechoslovakia), in the Austrian Empire. He was the son of Ignatz Lindauer, a nurseryman, and Mary, née Smith. His paternal uncle was Bishop of Budweis. For three years following his thirteenth birthday, young Lindauer was apprenticed in his father's nurseries and, while there, made many drawings and paintings of flowers. By the time his apprenticeship was completed he had decided to become an artist, and in 1855 walked the 200 miles from Pilsen to enrol at the Vienna Academy of Arts. Lindauer remained at the Academy for the next seven years, studying portrait painting under Professors Fuerich and Kuppleweisser. In 1861 one of his professors arranged for him to join Hemerlein, who was then one of the best known Viennese painters of religious subjects. Hemerlein secured him a commission to paint religious motifs for the Church of SS. Cyril and Method at Valasske Klobouky, a small town in Moravia. Afterwards he returned to Pilsen where he set up his own studio. His work here was interrupted by the necessity to undergo military training; however, as the young artist showed no aptitude for soldiering, his commanding officer commissioned a portrait of his wife. Other officers followed suit and, before long, he obtained commissions to paint portraits of many of the local notables.

Lindauer spent the next few years in Poland, giving private tuition in painting to the daughters of a Polish nobleman, and in Russia, where he painted Biblical subjects for a number of Catholic Cathedrals. Early in 1873 he was again called for military service; but, having been influenced by the Czech nationalism of his day, he obtained a year's deferment and fled the country. From Hamburg, he took passage in the Reichstag and landed in Nelson in August 1873.

Lindauer spent the next three years in the South Island. In 1876 he moved to Auckland, where he painted his first Maori portrait – that of Moses, a Maori peach hawker. In 1877 he held an exhibition in Wellington which drew much interest and led to many prominent Maori chiefs commissioning their portraits. Towards the end of the year he visited Thames, where he conceived the idea of painting a Maori scene to send to his native country. This picture – Woman and Child – attracted Sir Walter Buller's attention and led, eventually, to Buller's commissioning 20 Lindauer pictures for the London Intercolonial Exhibition in 1885. One of these, Poi Girl, was presented to the Prince of Wales.

In 1889 Lindauer took up a section in Pinfold Road, Woodville, Hawke's Bay, where he lived, with the exception of two brief visits to Europe, until his death. At Woodville he continued to paint portraits for people who came to him from all parts of New Zealand. It was here he completed the 70 Maori pictures for the H. E. Partridge Collection, Auckland. He continued to paint until eight years before his death. Lindauer died at Woodville on 13 June 1926.

Lindauer was twice married; first, in 1879, at Melbourne, Victoria, to Emelia Wipper, of Danzig, Germany (died in Christchurch on 24 February 1880); and, secondly, on 15 September 1885, at Napier, New Zealand, to Rebecca Petty, of Bishop Stortford, England. He had two sons by his second marriage.

Some confusion arises from Lindauer's mode of signing his pictures. Those painted in Europe are signed “B. Lindaur” or “B. Lindauer” – the “B.” standing for his Czech Christian name “Bohumir”, while the spelling of Lindauer was apparently optional. His pictures painted in New Zealand are signed “G. Lindauer” – the “G.” standing for his German name “Gottfried”, and the surname being spelt with an “e”.

by Bernard John Foster, M.A., Research Officer, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington.

Lindauer was an accomplished and meticulous draughtsman and his paintings present a faithful ethnological record. In depicting Maori garments, ornaments, and weapons, Lindauer has not been surpassed. His rendering of Maori features and moko (tattooing) are highly valued by ethnologists. He never permitted imagination to replace authenticity in recording the customs and the way of life of the Maori people of his day. As a result, his work lacks the romantic appeal of later artists, like C. F. Goldie or H. Linley Richardson, who searched out the fast-disappearing picturesque types, the relics of those “bygone” days already recorded by Lindauer.

Lindauer's paintings are valuable because either he was endowed with little inventive facility or he suppressed this quality in his paintings of the Maori. His compositions are obvious and even trite, and his colour is truthful but never adventurous. He was a recorder with a fastidious eye for the factual. With ample technical skill to achieve his purpose, he could paint a replica or a number of replicas almost indistinguishable from the original painting from life. Partridge presented his collection of about 80 Lindauers to the citizens of Auckland during the First World War on condition that the city raised £10,000 for the Belgian Relief Fund. In a few weeks this amount was oversubscribed. The Partridge Collection is now housed in the Auckland City Art Gallery. There are also a number of fine Lindauers in the New Plymouth and in the Wanganui Museums.

by Stewart Bell Maclennan, A.R.C.A.(LOND.), Director, National Art Gallery, Wellington.

Essay to the Painting of Bohumir Lindauer Discovered at Valašské Klobouky and Vizovice in Moravia in Czechoslovakia, Subert, F. (1961); Woodville Examiner, 18 Jun 1926 (Obit).

The most powerful light on the New Zealand coast is that on Stephens Island, with a visibility of 32 miles from its elevation of 600 ft. This light is for ships approaching the Cook Strait from the west. (The island is also famous for being one of the few breeding grounds of the almost extinct tuatara lizard.) Cape Reinga light marks the northern tip of the mainland of the North Island, and Puysegur Point the south-western tip of the South Island. An unusually interesting site for a lighthouse is that on the tip of the 26-mile-long sand spit at Farewell Spit, where lightkeepers in the past have planted trees to form an oasis which is conspicuous from seaward, and almost as valuable as the light itself.

by Peter Edward Muers, Section Officer (Lighthouses), Marine Department, Wellington.