(Haliotis australis), or hihiwa of the Maoris.

This shellfish is smaller than the paua and easily distinguished from it by its silvery internal lustre, corrugated shell, and colour. It is 3 to 4 in. in diameter. In Haliotis irus the foot is dark grey, but in australis it is bright orange. It is found along with iris, but is not so common.

Species allied to our paua are highly esteemed in other countries, particularly in California, where they are known as abalone, and in the Channel Islands, where their local species is called the ormer.

by Arthur William Baden Powell, Assistant Director, Auckland Institute and Museum.

(Haliotis iris).

This, our most handsome shellfish, grows up to 6 in. in length and is at once recognised by its oval, flattened shell with the row of holes along the back and the wonderful internal lustre of opalescent greens and blues, with occasional fiery flashes. The shape of the paua is a special adaptation for clinging to flat surfaces of rock, after the manner of a limpet, the holes in the shell being used for the purpose of expelling water used in the aeration of the gills. The paua is found at lowest spring-tide level and in deeper water on rocky ground in open coastal situations. Pauas cling to the rock with great suction, and a quick, deft thrust with a broad, thin-bladed knife is necessary to prise them off.

The paua animal has considerable food value and is very palatable, provided that the following rather drastic culinary preparations are attended to: remove the animal from its shell and discard all the soft parts, leaving only the tough foot and muscle, and taking care that a long, white, ribbonlike structure is removed from the mouth. This is the radula, or dental apparatus, which is studded with hundreds of hard, sharp, tiny teeth. Next, place the animal in a fold of cloth and pound it until muscular tension is relaxed. The flesh is now rolled in flour or covered with batter and either grilled or deep fried for three minutes. Omit the pounding or cook for more than three minutes and the result will be something akin to synthetic rubber.

by Arthur William Baden Powell, Assistant Director, Auckland Institute and Museum.

(c. 1770–1872).

Ngapuhi chief.

A new biography of Patuone, Eruera Maihi appears in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography on this site.

Patuone was born at Hokianga and was the son of Tapua, a priest and warrior chief of the Ngati Hao hapu of the Ngapuhi tribe, by his wife, Te Kawehau. He was the elder brother of Nene. Although educated for priestly office, Patuone took part in the tribal wars of the early 1800s, where he gained a notable reputation as a warrior. He was present at the Waituna engagement (1806) and at Warina (1810), when the Ngapuhi were defeated by the Ngati Roroa branch of Ngati Whatua. In 1814 Patuone and Nene welcomed the establishment of Marsden's mission and afterwards protected missionaries of all denominations. In 1819, when Thomas McDonnell founded a trading post and shipyard at Hokianga, Patuone and Nene gave the settlement their protection. Six years later they extended their protection to the first New Zealand Company's settlement in the same district.

In 1819 Patuone and Nene accompanied the joint Ngapuhi – Ngati Toa expedition, which was led by Tu Whare, Te Rauparaha, and Te Rangihaeata. This taua travelled through Taranaki, fought a series of engagements in the Wanganui district, and visited Cook Strait before returning home. In 1822 Patuone supported Hongi's cause against Te Hinaki and it was on his advice that Hongi pressed the siege of Mauinaina pa at a crucial moment. He was present at the battle of Te Ika-a-ranga-nui in 1825, when all earlier reverses at the hands of Ngati Whatua were avenged. Two years later Patuone and Nene intervened in one of Hongi's campaigns and rescued the missionaries from Wesleydale, Whangaroa. In 1831 Patuone signed the petition to William IV, requesting British protection. Later in the same year, while supporting a Ngati Paoa campaign against Te Waharoa, Patuone married Riria Takarangi, a sister of Te Kupenga, the Ngati Paoa chief of Whakatiwai. He lived with his wife's people for some years, but returned to Hokianga after her death. In 1835 he visited Thames with Henry Williams in the Columbine and afterwards went to Sydney.

Patuone was one of the first chiefs to sign the Treaty of Waitangi. Later in the same month he was baptised by Henry Williams, when he took the names Eruera Maihi (Edward Marsh) as a compliment to Williams' son. During Heke's revolt he took the field on the Government side and distinguished himself at the siege of Ruapekapeka pa. In the tribal unrest which followed, Grey invited Patuone to live at Waiwharariki on the North Shore. There he acted as a bulwark against the northern tribes. On one occasion, when a large fleet of Ngati Paoa war canoes appeared in Auckland Harbour bent on rescuing one of their chiefs who had been arrested, Patuone met them and persuaded them to disperse. When the Ngati Paoa made a subsequent foray against the city, Patuone's men garrisoned the redoubts against them. In order that he might be on hand should any further attack threaten he took up residence in Auckland, where he was in constant communication with the government of the day. In 1863, when war seemed imminent in the Waikato, he advised Grey that the side whose forces crossed the Maungatawhiri Stream first would be considered the aggressor. During Whitaker's superintendency (1865–67), Patuone was consulted on all phases of the Provincial Government's native policy.

In his later years the Colonial Government gave Patuone 200 acres in the Takapuna district and a pension of £100 per annum. He was well known to Auckland settlers in the 1860s and invariably wore the semi-undress uniform of a Grenadier Guards officer with an Inverness cape. On 19 July 1872 Patuone addressed a farewell letter to his many European friends. He died on 19 September 1872 and was buried, with full military honours, in the Church of England cemetery at the foot of Flagstaff Hill, North Shore. Dr Pollen was one of the chief mourners. Patuone is buried beside the son of his old commander and friend, Colonel Wynyard, and his grave is marked by a monument erected by the Colonial Government.

Patuone's monument gives his age as 96 years, but the old chief always claimed that, as a child of eight, he had in 1769 gone on board Captain Cook's ship at the Bay of Islands.

by Bernard John Foster, M.A., Research Officer, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington.

• Marsden Letters and Journals, Elder, J. R. (ed.) (1932)
• Early Journals of Henry Williams, 1826–40, Rogers, L. M. (ed.) (1961)
• The Life and Times of Patuone, Davis, C. O. (1876)
• New Zealand Herald, 23 Sep 1872 (Obit).

The term “patent” ordinarily refers to letters patent, issued in the name of the Queen, granting an inventor a monopoly of his invention for 16 years from the date when the full description of the invention (called the complete specification) is filed in the Patent Office, subject to payment of the prescribed renewal fees. As a monopoly, a patent entitles its proprietor to prevent the use of the invention, even by an independent prior discoverer. Priority rights in New Zealand are based broadly on order of application and not on the date of the actual invention. Applications for a patent must be accompanied by either a provisional or a complete specification. If a provisional specification is filed, a complete specification must be filed within a year, extendible to 15 months. Filing a provisional specification fixes the priority date and allows the applicant to publish or use the invention without losing his right to a patent. A patent is invalid if before the priority date the applicant or indeed anyone else uses or publishes the invention.

The law governing patents in New Zealand is contained in the Patents Act of 1953. It differs little from the United Kingdom law and no special account of it appears called for.

New Zealand is a party to the International Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, covering patents, trademarks, and industrial designs. The applicable text is the 1934 London revision. This country has not yet acceded to the 1958 Lisbon revision. Where a patent application is first made in another country which is a party to the Convention, a New Zealand application within a year in respect of the same invention enjoys for priority purposes the date of the overseas application. New Zealand inventors have corresponding privileges in other member countries.

About 2,800 patent applications are made in New Zealand annually. Some 30 per cent are by New Zealand individuals and companies, but most of the applications are by subsidiaries of overseas companies. Of patents granted only a small proportion originates in New Zealand. This reflects the small population and the lack of industrialisation and of advanced research, except in the field of agriculture.

by Bruce James Cameron, B.A., LL.M., Legal Adviser, Department of Justice, Wellington.

Patea, in South Taranaki, is situated on the western bank of the Patea River, near the mouth, the main part of the town standing on flat land behind coastal sandhills. The surrounding country is gently undulating. The New Plymouth – Wanganui highway passes through the borough, and the railway follows the east bank of the Patea River. Patea served as a minor port until July 1959. Hawera is 18 miles north-west of Patea by road or rail, and Wanganui is 38 miles south-east by road (41 miles by rail). Freezing works and cool stores are on the eastern bank of the river and close to the railway and wharves. Dairying and sheep farming are the main rural activities.

According to Maori tradition, the colonists from Hawaiki, led by Turi, left their craft at Aotea Harbour, travelled overland along the coast and established themselves about the mouth of the Patea River. An impressive monument of the Aotea canoe with its occupants commemorates the event and stands in front of the Patea Town Hall. Missionaries stationed at Heretoa, north of Patea, were probably the first important European visitors to the district. Bishop Selwyn, in the course of a journey from Wanganui to New Plymouth, passed through Patea in October 1842, and mentions meeting the Rev. John Skevington, pioneer missionary of South Taranaki, near Patea. The Rev. William Woon, a Wesleyan missionary, who followed Skevington at Heretoa, worked in the district from 1846 until 1853. Patea came into existence as a township called Carlyle, which was situated closer to the river mouth than is the main part of the present borough. Settlement commenced in the late 1850s or early 1860s. During the Maori Wars Patea was an important military settlement. General Cameron's force arrived at the mouth of the Patea River on 15 January 1865 and constructed redoubts on both sides of the river. Cameron was succeeded by Major-General Chute, who arrived at Patea in January 1866 with a mixed imperial and colonial force. In May 1867, after comparative quiet in the district, friction occurred between military settlers and Titokowaru's people, whose headquarters were to the north of Patea. By June 1868 active fighting had commenced. Following a repulse at Te Ngutuotemanu, Colonel Thomas McDonnell withdrew his whole force to Patea and resigned. Colonel Whitmore succeeded McDonnell and assumed command at Patea. Titokowaru and his Hauhaus marched southwards across the Patea River into the Wanganui district. He was followed by Whitmore who left a division of Armed Constabulary and others to defend Patea. Whitmore returned to Wanganui in January 1869 and by March had advanced into the outskirts of the Patea district. On 11 March he was again established at Patea. Next day he advanced up the river and attacked Titokowaru at Otautu and put the Hauhau band to flight. With the cessation of hostilities Patea grew as a market town. The first of the sections on the present town site were sold in 1870. A local shipping company was established in 1872, and harbour improvements were begun. In 1888 the freezing works were built on the east bank. Cool stores for handling dairy produce followed in 1901. The railway from Wanganui to Hawera via Patea was completed in March 1885. The Carlyle Town Board, created about 1877 to administer town affairs, was succeeded by a borough council constituted on 13 October 1881 under the earlier locality name of Patea.

The origin and meaning of the name are obscure.

POPULATION: 1951 census, 1,685; 1956 census, 1,898; 1961 census, 1,991.

by Brian Newton Davis, M.A., Vicar, St. Philips, Karori West, Wellington and Edward Stewart Dollimore, Research Officer, Department of Lands and Survey, Wellington.

Leguminous plants have a symbiotic relationship with certain bacteria, called rhizobia, that are able to extract nitrogen from the air, supply it to the host plant and eventually to all surrounding plants. Without nitrogen all plants die. Therefore these bacteria are particularly important in pasture establishment and growth, since the supply of nitrogen from clover plants is continuous and the cheapest that is available to the farmer. Though high fertility soils usually contain rhizobia that can inoculate clovers, they seldom have strains that are effective on lucerne, whereas lower fertility soils are deficient in most rhizobia. The correct strains of rhizobia for all leguminous plants can, however, be easily applied to the seed before planting. They establish themselves in small nodules on the plants' roots.

In 1927 the Mycological Laboratory of the Plant Research Station (now Plant Diseases Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research) commenced the distribution to farmers of cultures for the inoculation of lucerne. Demand increased steadily and by 1955 sufficient culture to inoculate more than 500,000 lb of lucerne seed was being used annually, together with experimental quantities of culture for the inoculation of other legumes, particularly clovers. When, in 1955, several firms showed the desire and ability to produce these legume cultures, the supply from the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research was discontinued and a scheme for the testing and certification of commercial cultures was instituted as a protection to the farmer. With the increase in development of second- and third-class land, especially that being brought into pasture from bush or scrub, together with the general realisation that such land required either annual applications of costly nitrogenous fertiliser or the inoculation of the clover seed with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, there has been a steady increase in demand for cultures to inoculate clovers.

by Douglas Winton Dye, B.AGR.SC., PH.D.(EDIN.), Plant Diseases Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Auckland.

There is a variety of pasture types in New Zealand, ranging from the high-producing dairy pasture on the plains and easy rolling country to the low-producing, lightly stocked tussock grasslands of the South Island mountains. Because moisture is the main factor limiting pasture production and improvement, the types of pasture which have been developed are determined very largely by this consideration.

1. High Fertility Pastures with Optimum Moisture for Most of the Year

These pastures are confined mainly to well-drained areas with an adequate and well distributed rainfall. Irrigated pastures are included in this group.

In the northern part of the North Island these pastures, which are left down for many years, frequently contain paspalum as a dominant plant. This grass is high producing in summer and dormant in winter but, if neglected, it rapidly becomes sod bound and low in production. To maintain paspalum pastures in high production, the turf mat has to be destroyed either by ploughing or by deep-surface cultivation. This is followed by the sowing of ryegrass and white clover, usually with phosphatic fertiliser. Such a mixed pasture of ryegrass, paspalum, and white clover is capable of a higher production over a longer period than that of ryegrass and white clover, or paspalum and white clover alone. The value of the paspalum pasture is limited to the warmer areas where it is able to make a major contribution to the total annual production.

In other parts of both islands, reliance is placed mainly on ryegrass and white clover, a combination which is capable of high production and of recovery from the heavy trampling that accompanies the intensive grazing of high-producing pastures. Although these are the two main plants used, cocksfoot, timothy, and red clover are often included for summer production. Crested dogstail is frequently included in sheep pastures, particularly in the South Island. In the warmer dairying districts, such as Taranaki, prairie grass is used to a limited extent because of its ability to grow in the winter. Although it is seldom sown deliberately, Yorkshire fog is one of the most abundant pasture grasses in the higher rainfall dairying districts. Its increase over the last 20 years has been unwittingly encouraged by the common practice of autumn and winter spelling of pastures. Commonly regarded as a weed grass, it makes a very substantial contribution to production, particularly in the winter when it is more readily eaten than in the summer. When it is growing vigorously, Yorkshire fog is fairly palatable but its palatability falls off rapidly when it matures, and particularly in the warmer months. It is this lack of summer palatability that has made Yorkshire fog unpopular, but it is undoubtedly of more value than is generally believed.

2. Pastures of High Fertility but Liable to Suffer from Lack of Moisture in the Summer

Pastures of this type are of necessity usually reserved for sheep rather than for dairy cows, and are present mainly on the eastern side of both islands. Although cocksfoot and red clover are often included to maintain summer production, ryegrass is usually the main grass in this type of pasture. White clover is liable to dry out in summer, and its permanence as a major constituent in these pastures cannot be assured. For this reason the annual subterranean clover is also used extensively because of its useful winter, spring, and early summer production. Further, it has the ability to maintain its plant population through reseeding.

The clover content of these pastures tends to vary appreciably from year to year according to the extent of summer droughts. Dry summers are usually followed by a dominance of subterranean clover; wet summers are followed by a dominance of white clover. The general tendency has been for subterranean clover to be a pioneer fertility-building legume in the drier areas. As the fertility rises, it tends to be gradually, but not entirely, replaced by white clover.

3. Surface-sown Hill Country

A very large proportion of the North Island's grassland consists of surface-sown hill country, most of which was developed long before the use of fertilisers for this type of country was seriously considered. Most of the sowing was on the ash, after the burning of the fern, scrub, and felled bush, with mixtures based mainly on ryegrass. The seed mixtures used were often fairly complex – in the hope that at least some of the species sown would survive under the often variable and difficult conditions. After the burning, the initial high fertility disappeared in about three years, with the result that many of the sown species did not thrive. These were replaced by lower-producing grasses and sometimes unpalatable native plants. Over the years, two main types of grassland have developed. The first was in the higher-rainfall areas and consisted mainly of low-fertility grasses such as browntop and Yorkshire fog, with unthrifty white clover. In some areas considerable improvement resulted from the surface sowing of Lotus major (Lotus pedunculatus), which was able to grow well and produce useful feed under conditions of low soil fertility but with ample moisture. The second type was developed in the lower rainfall areas where Danthonia pilosa was a common constituent. The danthonia was frequently burnt to keep it in a palatable condition, and, as it was better able to withstand fire than most other species, it continued to thrive. Other associated plants, particularly the useful clovers, were virtually eliminated or reduced to an unimportant level.

Since the introduction of aerial topdressing a few years ago, a change has taken place in the surface-sown grassland. In the wetter areas the topdressing is usually associated with the sowing of a good type of white clover. Not only has this increased production from the pasture, but it has also enabled weed plants, such as manuka, tauhinu, and hard fern, to be controlled by grazing much more successfully than they have been in the past. As the fertility rises, and as the white clover increases, the existing grasses grow more satisfactorily. Associated with this is the stimulation and increase of the surviving useful plants such as ryegrass, cocksfoot, and dogstail.

In the drier areas the same pattern of change is taking place. The oversowing and topdressing of the danthonia-dominant country with subterranean and white clovers have resulted in the establishment of an essentially annual legume content in a sward of a low-fertility perennial grass. The effect is the gradual replacement of the danthonia by higher-fertility-demanding grasses such as ryegrass and cocksfoot. Associated with this is a logical increase of other high-fertility-demanding species, some of which are very undesirable — for example, barley grass and thistles. This major change from a low-fertility perennial grass dominant sward to a sward of annuals, including undesirables, is one that needs close attention. From a short-term viewpoint, such a change is desirable as it increases both the quality and quantity of the feed. From the long-term point of view, however, such a complete change may be undesirable because of the greatly increased risk of soil movement after summer rains when the plant cover, mainly annual, is dead. The ideal could quite well be a carefully managed association of a danthonia-dominant sward with some fairly vigorous annual legume which would not be allowed to become dominant. The best combination would include a drought-resistant perennial legume, but unfortunately such a plant is not available.

4. Tussock Grassland

Most of the eastern side of the South Island was covered with tussock grassland of various kinds which can be considered under the following major groups:

A. Red Tussock:

Although present in the higher hill country, this tall unpalatable tussock was the dominant plant in large areas of poorly drained plains and rolling country of South Otago and Southland, and in consequence these areas provided very little grazing. Most of this tussock grassland has now been drained, ploughed, cropped, and sown down to pasture. For many years much of it reverted rapidly to cloverless, unthrifty pastures dominated by browntop. This was due partly to the low fertility of the soils and partly to the lack of persistent high-producing strains of grasses and clovers. During the last few years, however, a major change has taken place in the former red tussock country. The main factors have been the increase in clover vigour as the result of the application of adequate phosphatic fertiliser, the use of molybdenum, and the sowing of persistent, high-producing strains of grasses and clovers.

B. Snow Tussock:

Snow tussock was the dominant plant on much of the higher-altitude tussock country. When left alone, it forms an almost pure association and not only provides little or no grazing but also hinders the movement of stock. For these reasons the practice for many years was to burn this country periodically. This had several worth-while effects — first, the young growth was palatable to sheep; secondly, it eliminated the tophamper of leaves, thus allowing the free movement of sheep; and, thirdly, it allowed more palatable grasses and herbs to establish themselves between the tussocks. Burning, however, had some undesirable effects, the worst being the killing of the tussock itself, which often happened after a burn when the base of the tussock was dry. Such burning, when repeated, had the effect of so reducing the amount of tussock and litter that the action of frost, rain, and wind caused erosion which ranged from minor soil movement to large areas of shingle screes on the steep, unstable hill country. Since the establishment of catchment boards and catchment commissions, the burning of this country has been governed by permit which stipulates the time of year (usually early spring) and the frequency with which specific areas may be burnt.

One of the important problems confronting those who are investigating tussock grassland improvement is that of deciding upon the most suitable treatment for this type of country, not only to save it from further deterioration but also to control the “run-off” which effects the low country by floods and the building up of rivers with shingle. Revegetation with trees, grasses, and legumes, as well as natural regeneration, are also being studied. The problem is a difficult and complex one, and it is unlikely that a simple and economical solution will be found in the near future. Present efforts are in the direction of halting the deterioration by the control of burning and the reduction of grazing by all animals. Indeed, some of this country has been freed from grazing.

C. Silver Tussock:

Silver tussock is confined mainly to the more fertile country, and occurs in comparatively small areas. The farming of this country has resulted in very little damage. Much of it has been ploughed and sown down to permanent pasture. A considerable part of the remainder has been advantageously modified by the gradual, but not deliberate, replacement of the tussock by plants such as browntop, sweet vernal, white clover, and flatweeds, with some cocksfoot and ryegrass in the more favourable and moist situations.

D. Fescue Tussock:

A great deal of the fescue tussock grassland on the easier country such as the Canterbury Plains and downlands has disappeared as the result of many years of rotation farming. Most of this country is now capable of carrying fattening pastures and producing good crops. On the moist areas white clover is the dominant legume, while subterranean clover has played an important part in fertility building on the drier parts of the plains. There is, however, a large area of fescue tussock grassland on the hills and inland plains. For many years this country has been farmed intensively and stocked mainly with Merino and half-bred sheep. All of this fescue tussock grassland has been modified (to a greater or lesser extent) as a result of farming. On the more fertile sites there has been a tendency for the tussock to be slowly and partly replaced by other plants such as browntop and flat-weeds. This country is fairly stable and presents no major problems of restoration. In the higher-rainfall areas, there have been marked changes on country that has been fairly heavily grazed and occasionally burnt. The greatest change has been the almost complete replacement of the tussock with manuka and also gorse. Some of this country is now being improved by burning, ploughing, and sowing down to pasture, with an associated rise in fertility, by the application of suitable fertilisers and trace elements such as phosphorus, sulphur, and molybdenum.

In some of the areas of moderate rainfall, where manuka does not invade the pastures, there has been a gradual replacement of the tussock with unthrifty browntop which, although providing ground cover, produces very little feed, and then for only a short time each year. In the areas of low rainfall, the effects of grazing by sheep and large numbers of rabbits were very considerable. The tussock disappeared over large areas, particularly in Central Otago, and was replaced by the unpalatable xerophytic scabweed. The only feed available to sheep was a scant supply of annual grasses and some herbs.

During the last decade great changes have taken place in the fescue tussock grassland. In the depleted country the rabbits have been reduced to insignificant numbers, with a resultant rapid recovery of annuals followed by some of the tussock grasses. Some white clover and cocksfoot have been oversown, but this has been successful mainly on the more favoured shady faces.

The main change on the fescue tussock grassland is the result of oversowing and topdressing areas which still carried a reasonable amount of tussock, often with some browntop. The success of this has been spectacular, but two problems remain. The first is how and when to introduce better grasses such as cocksfoot. It seems that this is successful only after the introduction of legumes and before volunteer grasses such as Yorkshire fog and sweet vernal are stimulated to the extent that they form too dense a sward for the cocksfoot to establish itself in. The second problem is the utilisation of the feed that is produced after the improvement.

If the feed is not grazed, the change brought about by the topdressing and oversowing merely becomes an expensive demonstration of what can be achieved. To make use of this new feed involves a change to farming methods approximating to those used by the down-country farmer. This includes the very expensive item of subdivisional fencing, possibly the use of a breed of sheep which will provide a better financial return in relation to costs than does the Merino, and the introduction of supplementary feeding during the winter. On some properties this is already taking place. There are, unfortunately, many properties where the wholesale improvement of fescue tussock grassland and its utilisation will not be profitable. Where, however, this improvement is feasible, it is likely to have the desirable effect of reducing the grazing pressure on the higher, critical, snow-tussock country.

Where improvement by oversowing and topdressing is not warranted, there is every indication that minor adjustments in present management practices will allow such country to be spelled at periods which have a bearing on the seed production and the consequent strengthening of the sward by the shed seed.

5. Soil Fertility

Apart from certain alluvial types, the soils of New Zealand are of too low a fertility to enable pasture plants to produce to their maximum. The chief deficiency which limits pasture production is nitrogen. In some countries where the climatic conditions are suitable, this deficiency is made up by the repeated application of nitrogenous fertilisers. In the New Zealand climate it is possible to grow legumes so well that they will supply enough nitrogen to enable the grasses also to thrive. Consequently, in this country, the basic principle of fertility raising is the production of nitrogen by the stimulation of the clovers. Depending on soil type, the main deficiencies have been found to be phosphorus, sulphur, potassium, and molybdenum. Lime is also important, not so much as a supplier of calcium, but as a means of reducing soil acidity. An essential part of a programme of fertility building is the recognition of the importance of the return of nutrients, particularly phosphorus, potassium, and nitrogen, through the animal to the pasture. Just as the pasture is grown to feed the stock, so do the stock in return feed the pasture with nutrients. The more stock carried, the greater and more useful is this return.

6. Species

The finding of new and better species of pasture plants for New Zealand has long been the hope of many people.

A study of the seed mixtures now in general use will reveal that hardly any new species have come into general use during the last 60 years or so. The trend is in the opposite direction – the number of species now in general use or advocated is appreciably less than it used to be. Species such as sheeps parsley, sheeps fescue, red top, meadow foxtail, and Poa trivialis are seldom, if ever, sown now. The whole trend in the use of different species has been one of simplification rather than of complication. This is largely because of the realisation that the management imposed on a sward has a very marked effect on determining whether or not certain species will thrive.

Because current farm management practices favour ryegrass and white clover, these are still the main constituents of most mixtures. Other species which have stood the test of time are cocksfoot, timothy, paspalum, and crested dogstail; and of the legumes, subterranean clover, red clover, lucerne, and Lotus pedunculatus (Lotus major). Less used species include Phalaris tuberosa, doub, prairie grass, chewings fescue, alsike, and strawberry clover. Of all these species, the only comparatively recent introduction accepted for general use is subterranean clover, the value of which was being established about 30 years ago.

Many plants have since been tested and found wanting. One of the main areas in which plant testing was carried out until recently was the tussock grassland. After years of testing, several species had been found which were likely to be useful under the existing conditions of low fertility. At about the same time the rabbit was brought under control and aerial topdressing was introduced. This called for a complete revision of ideas. The outcome was that all the evidence pointed towards the somewhat surprising fact that, for introduction into the tussock grassland, cocksfoot was the most promising grass, and white clover and lucerne the most promising legumes.

Although the search for new and better species has been far from rewarding, it should not be abandoned, as there is always the possibility that something new and useful like subterranean clover will be found. The fact that it is unlikely that much advance will be made in regard to new species does not mean there is no chance of an improvement in plants. For the last 30 years improvement within species has been carried out mainly by the Grasslands Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research at Palmerston North. This organisation has produced great improvements both by selection and by breeding in the ryegrasses, cocksfoot, timothy, and red and white clovers. Work has been carried out on inter-specific hybrids and in the improvement of several other species. This shows that the improvements which can be made within a species have an effect equivalent to, or greater than, the finding of a new species. It appears, therefore, that the most likely improvements in pasture plants will come not from new plant introductions but from the efforts of the plant breeder working on already commonly used species.

7. Weeds in Pastures

A plant survives in a pasture only because conditions are favourable. This applies to both desirable and undesirable plants. It is therefore not surprising to find adjoining paddocks with entirely different groups of weed plants present. For example, a high-fertility dairy pasture, rotationally grazed, may have a considerable proportion of the ground occupied by docks and perhaps chickweed, whereas in a low-fertility, hard-grazed pasture over the boundary fence the dominant weeds may be ribgrass and catsear. This is due mainly to differences in induced soil fertility and pasture management.

The important factor in the control of weeds in pastures is, therefore, one of so altering the fertility and management conditions that the weeds will not thrive under the newly created conditions. This procedure eliminates weeds which disappear with an increase in fertility and under conditions of management which favour high production. It must, however, be appreciated that as one alters conditions so that one group of weeds will disappear, another situation will be created which will suit other groups of weeds. For this reason it cannot be assumed that altered fertility and management will eliminate all weeds. All that can be expected is that one group of weeds may be replaced by another.

The crux of the weed problem is, therefore, the elimination of weeds which increase under the desirable conditions of high fertility and good pasture management. Because a reduction in fertility is undesirable as a weed-control measure, it is necessary to consider whether or not slightly modified management practices are warranted. For example, docks and ragwort decrease under sheep grazing. For this reason, and if the type of farming practised will allow it, both of these weeds can be kept under control by periodic grazing by sheep. They will, of course, return as soon as grazing by cattle is resumed. Usually such an approach is impracticable, and it is then necessary to resort to chemical or mechanical methods of control. These as a rule, provide only temporary relief, and consequently such treatment is necessarily repetitive.

Other weeds difficult to control are those which thrive under conditions which cannot be economically altered. Examples are sweet brier and nassella tussock. The former has been prevalent in Central Otago for many years, but did not spread sufficiently to cause any real alarm. With the reduction of the rabbit population, however, sweet brier is now growing vigorously and is regarded by runholders with great concern. Its increase has been due solely to the fact that the only known practicable method of control over large areas, namely, rabbits, has now been removed. The problem is therefore to find an alternative method of control at least as good as that of the rabbit and, at the same time, that is financially possible on country that is unlikely to be improved to the state where fertility is sufficiently high to allow enough sheep to control it efficiently. Several chemicals have been shown to be quite effective in killing sweet brier, but their use is limited to isolated plants solely because of the cost both of the chemical and of its application.

by Stephen Hector Saxby, DIP.AGR., Assistant Director, Farm Advisory Division, Department of Agriculture, Wellington.

• Grasslands of New Zealand, Levy, E. B. (1951)
• Grass to Milk, McMeekan, C. P. (1960)
• Pasture Production in New Zealand, Saxby, S. H. (1956)
• Chemical Methods of Weed Control, Matthews, L. J. (1956).

In the very early years of settlement when the mission stations opened in the northern part of the North Island, the establishment of grassland was a small part of self-sufficiency farming based mainly on the growing of food for humans. The first sowing of grass was carried out on land cleared from fern near Kerikeri, Northland, on 20 July 1821. When farming commenced later in the South Island, the native tussock grassland provided a large area of ready-made grazing. The native grassland which covered much of the hills and plains lying to the east of the Southern Alps contained many palatable grasses and herbs and was rapidly stocked with sheep, with little effort other than fencing. On much of the easier country the tussock grassland was ploughed to grow crops, and was then sown in pasture. Although some of this pasture was of good quality, much of it was poor, particularly where moisture was a limiting factor, and the grassland had to be renewed in a frequent rotation with cereals. Much of the tussock grassland which was not ploughed became considerably modified as the result of burning and grazing by sheep and, in some areas, by rabbits. As a result of this treatment some of the grassland almost disappeared and was replaced by manuka in the higher-rainfall areas and by the unpalatable scabweed in the areas of low rainfall. In many parts the changes were not great, the main one being the replacement of some of the palatable herbs, which could not survive, by the more tenacious grasses and herbs. After some 100 years of farming, the tussock grasslands have reached a state of near stability – the degree depending on the treatment they have received.

In the North Island the development of grassland was quite different. Except for parts of the tussock grassland of the Central Plateau, the land was covered with forest, fern, and scrub. Grassland farming, therefore, had to be preceded by the destruction of the original vegetation. After this was cut and burnt, grass seed was sown by hand on the ash among the logs and stumps. The results of this policy of burning and sowing were variable. In some of the more fertile areas good pastures were established. In others, however, unpalatable native plants such as fern, piripiri, tauhinu, and manuka became established, spread, and eventually crowded out the sown grasses, so that little or no grazing was available to stock. As a consequence, considerable areas of the North Island hill country wholly or partly reverted to these unpalatable plants. Some of this land was later cleared and sown down a second time, but its low fertility made it very difficult to maintain good grazing pasture. Only during the last few years has the permanent recovery of some of this country been made possible by the raising of fertility due mainly to the use of aerially applied fertilisers. Nevertheless, on much of the higher fertility country there was little reversion, and good clean pastures developed when the logs and stumps had been burnt or had rotted away.

New Zealand is a country whose wealth has depended mainly on the animal products derived from its grasslands. Although other types of production are increasing, there is little doubt that for many years to come the country's prosperity will continue to depend on its grassland products.

Production from grassland is dependent on many factors, most of which can be modified to suit requirements. Soil fertility, species and strains of plants, management, and control of pests can be moulded to fit in with a predetermined plan. The one important factor which cannot be modified is climate. A favourable climate is one which is neither too hot nor too cold, neither too wet nor too dry – one that enables grass to be grown successfully in most parts of the country. Although a large part of New Zealand is too steep for the plough, the climate is such that grass can be grown on most of the hill country, much of which is steeper than that used for pasture production in many other countries. The effect of the moisture content of “climate” is modified in some areas by drainage or irrigation, but only a comparatively small part of the country is affected in these ways.

(1816–1904).

Civil servant.

A new biography of Parris, Robert Reid appears in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography on this site.

Robert Reid Parris was born in 1816 at Tatworth, Chard, Somerset, the son of William Parris, a local gentleman farmer. He farmed in Devonshire for some years before emigrating to New Plymouth, where he arrived in the Blenheim on 7 November 1842. About 1846 Selwyn asked him to take charge of the industrial and agricultural departments of St. John's College for Maori Boys. There he gained a knowledge of the Maori language, together with a smattering of their customs. He returned to Taranaki in the early 1850s and, on 20 August 1853, was elected to represent the Grey and Bell district in the first Provincial Council. For a few months in 1857 he served on Cutfield's executive, but resigned on 27 June 1857 to become the General Government's Land Purchase Commissioner for Taranaki. From 1859 until 1865 he was Assistant Native Secretary. In 1859 he was responsible for conducting the negotiations leading to the purchase of the Waitara Block and assured Gore Browne that Teira's claim was the only valid one. On the outbreak of war in 1860 Parris found himself in difficulties with his Maori friends.

In May of that year some Taranaki and Ngati Ruanui chiefs plotted to assassinate him; however, when the plot was disclosed by a Mokau chief and the Waikatos extended their protection, the plan miscarried.

During the Waikato Wars Parris served as an interpreter with the Imperial troops: he was given the rank of major in the Militia and commanded the Native Allies for a short time. Both Grey and Warre found him an able interpreter and competent adviser and he was mentioned in dispatches repeatedly. In 1865 he was appointed Civil Commissioner for Taranaki and cooperated with the provincial authorities in settling the difficulties arising from the war. His influence was decisive in preventing the tribes north of Opunake from joining the Hauhau uprising in 1868. In July 1875 Parris retired from the Civil Service and McLean took the opportunity of thanking him publicly for his services. A few years later he was recalled to assist Sir William Fox on the West Coast Commission.

In 1838, at Colyton, Somerset, Parris married Mary Whitmore, by whom he had three daughters. One of these, Emma, married Henry Richmond, Superintendent of Taranaki. Parris died at Dawson Street, New Plymouth, on 18 September 1904.

As the Government agent in the Waitara purchase, Parris bore most responsibility for the war which followed, although McLean and certain of the Taranaki provincial authorities must have urged him to the course of action he took. His error lay in accepting Teira's unsupported evidence of ownership without understanding that, according to Maori tribal law, others, including Wiremu Kingi Te Rangitake, possessed more valid claims. Parris did not investigate Kingi's claim, believing that it rested on nothing more than recent permissive occupancy. This error was not mitigated by the Governor's instructions which required him to ignore the complicated genealogical aspects of Maori customary tenure.

by Bernard John Foster, M.A., Research Officer, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington.

• The Origins of the Maori Wars, Sinclair, K. (1957)
• Taranaki Herald, 19, 21 Sep 1904 (Obits).