No economic mineral deposits are known in the Southern Alps, but the low-grade schists west of the main divide contain quartz veins from which the gold deposits of Westland are thought to be derived. The quartz veins themselves are poor in gold but the concentrating action of rivers and sea has produced rich leads now very largely worked out. Greywacke gravels derived from the alps and foothills are the main source of road metal and concrete aggregate in the South Island.

The main economic product of the Alps is the waterpower produced by the heavy precipitation throughout the high country. This is at present exploited only by power stations on the Waitaki River and at Lake Coleridge. (Others on the Waitaki River and its major tributaries are in course of construction.) Several other rivers, though difficult to exploit, are potential hydro-electrical producers.

by Alan Copland Beck, M.SC., New Zealand Geological Survey, Christchurch.

The Southern Alps throughout their length are composed of Upper Paleozoic to Mid-Mesozoic sediments, greywackes, and argillites, and their transformed (metamorphosed) underlying equivalents, the schists of the western side of the main divide. They have been deformed by two periods of diastrophism which gave the rocks their complicated fold-structures and generally steep attitudes. The second deformation, which is probably still in progress, was a block-faulting and tilting which reached an extreme in the Alps, and produced the basis of the present topography. The maximum tilting was to the west along the Alpine Fault where schist underlying the eastern greywacke is now exposed, implying a displacement of tens of thousands of feet.

On the western side of the divide, temperate rain forest reaches from the sea to a height of 4,000 ft, and in some places glaciers extend well below the bush line, e.g., Fox and Franz Josef Glaciers. The forest is composed of beech (Nothofagus menziesii and N. fusca) with rata (Metrosideros lucida), and rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) at lower elevation. This is succeeded by a belt of subalpine scrub and finally by snow grass up to the vegetation limit which is permanent snowline (about 6,000 ft).

On the east the vegetation is largely subalpine tussock with small areas of beech and totara forest in gullies and patches which have escaped destruction by fire, possibly set alight by early Maoris. Evidence for the former extent of the eastern forest is given by the widespread occurrence of charred logs of totara and matai, and charcoal horizons in the soil. Changing climate was possibly the reason for the failure of the forest to regenerate.

The most notable of New Zealand's flowering plants, the subalpine and alpine plants, are found in the Southern Alps. Generally the forest flowers are inconspicuous.

The Alps and the major flanking ranges are largely the upturned edges of tilted blocks considerably modified by water and ice erosion by rivers and glaciers. The main divide culminates in the Mt. Cook area with 17 peaks above 10,000 ft, from Mt. Sefton (10,359 ft) in the south to Mt. Elie de Beaumont (10,200 ft) in the north. Mt. Cook (12,349 ft) is on a south-trending spur from Mt. Dampier (11,287 ft) near Mt. Tasman (11,475 ft) on the main divide. South from Mt. Sefton, the Southern Alps maintain a height of about 7,500 ft to Haast Pass (1,847 ft), the lowest alpine pass.

North of Mt. Elie de Beaumont the main divide decreases in height, with a few peaks above 8,000 ft (e.g., Mt. Tyndall, 8,282 ft; Mt. Whitcombe, 8,656 ft), descending to Mt. Rolleston (7,453 ft) just south of Arthur's Pass. Some subsidiary spurs and flanking ranges contain peaks higher than those on the adjacent main divide (e.g., D'Archiac, 9,279 ft, and the Arrowsmith Range (Mt. Arrowsmith, 9,171 ft)). Whitcombe Pass (4,025 ft) and Browning Pass (4,752 ft) are low passes free from snow in summer, but only Arthur's Pass (3,020 ft) in the north and Haast Pass in the south are used for transalpine roads.

Peaks and ranges above 5,000 ft show the effects of glaciation with cirques and glacial valleys dominating the landscape, and the major valleys show glacial features – moraines and ice-sheared walls – for many miles down stream from existing glaciers.

The extent of the Southern Alps has never been officially defined. This account deals with that part of the axial range of the South Island extending from Haast Pass to Arthur's Pass. The geology, vegetation, and economic sections apply also to the northern continuation, including the Spenser Range, as far as Tophouse Saddle on the Wairau River, Marlborough. Between the Spenser Range and Arthur's Pass, the ranges are low, 5,000–6,000 ft, with no notable peaks, and contain four passes: Harper Pass (3,152 ft); Hope Pass (3,383 ft); Amuri Pass (3,301 ft); and Lewis Pass (2,837 ft) the latter providing an important road route between Canterbury and the West Coast.

Sole (Peltorhamphus novaezelandiae), patiki rori of the Maoris, is distinguished from the flounders by its oval shape, rounded region of the head, and the almost continuous fringe of fins. Most of the market supply is trawled in moderately deep water, but it is occasionally found in shallow estuarine locations.

The sole is olive-grey, dotted with black, and extra large examples have been recorded up to 30 in. in length. It is esteemed as a food fish, but only because it is less common in the markets than flounders which are superior in taste and food value. A related species is known as the lemon sole, Pelotretus flavilatus. Thirteen species of flat fishes are known from New Zealand waters, including a large turbot, Colistium nudipinnis, which is comparatively rare, and the megrim, Caulopsetta scapha, which is not popular as a food fish as it is usually very thin. The latter species abounds in the Te Whanga Lagoon, Chatham Island.

by Arthur William Baden Powell, Assistant Director, Auckland Institute and Museum.

Owing to the economic importance of soils in New Zealand, many organisations are actively interested in various branches of soil science, and especially in the following fields:

Organisations working in these fields fall into four main groups: Government Departments, research associations, universities (especially the agricultural colleges), and research institutes and other bodies. In their research activities they tend to concentrate either upon filling in a part of the broad background of soil knowledge or upon problems of immediate concern. Consequently, in order to solve problems that extend beyond their chosen field, they cooperate on joint projects. Their spheres of interest are outlined below.

Government Departments

Several divisions of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research undertake soil and related studies. The Soil Bureau contains research sections dealing with soil survey, soil chemistry, soil physical chemistry, soil physics, soil biochemistry, soil biology, and soil engineering. It is occupied principally with basic soil investigations, many of which are long term, and it cooperates with other organisations which investigate problems of immediate concern. The Grasslands Division undertakes soil-fertility studies on the interaction of pasture plants, fertilisers, animal dung and urine, earthworms, and animal grazing. It also investigates losses of soil fertility by cropping and leaching, the nature of changes of organic matter in soils under pasture, and various aspects of plant nutrition. The Crop Research and Fruit Research Divisions and the Tobacco and Hop Research Stations study the requirements of special crops.

The Department of Agriculture has several divisions undertaking soil-fertility work. The Agricultural Research Division, which has its headquarters at Hamilton, provides the main research services for the Department and maintains several research institutions. In the North Island it has the Ruakura Agricultural Research Centre with a soil research station at Rukuhia, and animal research stations at Ruakura, Whatawhata, and Manutuke, as well as the Levin Horticultural Research Centre and the Wallaceville Animal Research Centre. In the South Island it has the Winchmore Irrigation Research Station, the Taieri Soil Research Station, the Invermay Research Station, and the Taieri Diagnostic Station. Among its activities the Division studies fertiliser requirements of soils, pastures, and farm crops, and has field trials for this purpose on farms throughout the country. It investigates other current soil-fertility problems such as those associated with irrigation, soil drainage, or rhizobium inoculation for clover and lucerne establishment. It makes soil analyses for farmers, undertakes field research on soil-conservation problems, studies problems of vegetable and fruit production, and investigates mineral-deficiency diseases and other problems of animal production. The Farm Advisory Division maintains an advisory service for farmers and undertakes studies of land use and land management as well as farm economic studies. It includes soil conservators who make soil-conservation surveys, devise farm plans for conservation farming, advise farmers on soil-conservation problems, and cooperate with the soil conservators of catchment authorities. In addition, it has stations on soil-conservation reserves located in districts where soil erosion is a problem. The Animal Industry, Dairy, and Horticulture Divisions also maintain advisory services. All these advisory divisions cooperate with the Research Division and other organisations engaged on soil studies.

The Lands and Survey Department undertakes land-classification surveys and, with the Maori Affairs Department, studies soil/land-use relationships in connection with new land-development projects. The New Zealand Forest Service maintains the Forest Research Institute at Rotorua, which studies the nutrient requirements of trees, the relation between tree nutrition and soil fertility, and the soil changes that occur under trees. It also has forest and range experimental stations at Rangiora and Napier for study of the soils of mountain lands with particular reference to erosion and vegetation. The Ministry of Works administers the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, the policy of which is implemented by Catchment Boards and other catchment authorities throughout the country; the Governemnt soil conservators, however, are under the Department of Agriculture. The Ministry also has a central laboratory to provide information for earth dams and roading projects. The Department of Health investigates the relation between human health and soils.

Research Associations

The research associations are cooperative organisations supported by Government and industry. The New Zealand Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association, Auckland, provides an information service for the industry and studies problems related to the production, distribution, and use of fertilisers, particularly phosphates. The New Zealand Pottery and Ceramics Research Association, Lower Hutt, investigates clay materials for the ceramics industry.

Universities

Education in soil science is provided mainly by the agricultural colleges, but is also included in geography courses in all the universities. A lecturer in pedology is attached to the Geology Department of Victoria University. Canterbury Agricultural College at Lincoln undertakes research on soil/plant relationships, including the accumulation of organic matter, the competition for nutrients between grasses and clovers, the sulphur cycle in soils, and leaching losses from limed pastures. Massey Agricultural College, Palmerston North, investigates phosphate fixation and soil-drainage problems.

Research Institutes and Other Bodies

Cawthron Institute, Nelson, undertakes the mapping of soils in the Waimea County, in collaboration with Soil Bureau, and investigates soil-fertility problems associated for the most part with the district. The Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute, Lincoln, investigates the management of native grasslands, with particular reference to improving the vegetation to mitigate soil erosion and minimise flooding. The New Zealand Meat and Wool Boards maintain a Sheep and Beef Cattle Survey, which investigates animal diseases and other problems related to the soil, and the New Zealand Dairy Board supports the Herd Improvement Department, which investigates similar problems in dairy cows. One or two private companies undertake soil analyses for farmers.

by Ivan Joseph Pohlen, M.A., Soil Bureau, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Taita.

• A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand, McLintock, A. H. (ed.) (1959)
• Soils and Land Use, Taylor, N. H., Pohlen, I. J., and Scott, R. H. (1959)
• Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Soil Science No. 4 (1960). “The Impact of Man on Soils”, Gibbs, H. S.
• Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand, Vol. 82 (1955), “The Role of Soil Science in New Zealand Problems”, Taylor, N. H.
• New Zealand Soil Bureau Bulletin, No. 5. (1954)

The rapid increase in knowledge of the soils of New Zealand has brought about a change in approach to land use. In the early thirties the use of land was still guided by the art of judging its capabilities from its appearance and from a general experience of farming and local conditions. This method had its successes, but in places failed badly. In parts of the country, for example, healthy pastures could not be maintained and farm land was abandoned or planted in exotic forests.

The use of land is now guided for the most part by the capabilities of the soil type as revealed by investigation. The reliability of predictions made in this way has stimulated the rapid conversion of large areas of “problem” land into good farms and has raised land use to a new pitch of efficiency, which reflects the modern swing from farming as a traditional art to farming as an up-to-date science.

In New Zealand, soil science has evolved in four stages, each characterised by a different approach:

1. 1867–1900: “Manures” and agricultural chemistry.

2. 1900–30: “Soil surveys”, field trials, and pot tests.

3. 1930–45: Pedology – study of the soil as a natural body.

4. 1945–64: Soil science – study of the soil and its relationship to land use.

The first stage was dominated by Liebig's philosophy that productivity depends on maintaining the correct balance of mineral elements in the soil and, consequently, was characterised by chemical analyses of soils and fertilisers. Complete analyses of soils, however, proved insufficient to predict plant requirements. In the second stage the soil in place became the focus of study. Experiments with crops were undertaken systematically on plots in the field and in pots of soil in the laboratory and, at the same time, attempts were made to map soils into units that could serve as a basis for predicting fertiliser responses and suitable kinds of land use.

In the third stage the approach to soil science changed radically and its utility was enormously increased when attempts at soil survey and classification culminated in full understanding of the modern concept of soil as a natural body. Upon this new concept was founded the science of pedology, which enabled the mapping of soil units that could be used for predicting the behaviour of the soil at any spot. In the latest stage the trend has been towards the integration of soil science in order to make best use of it.

In New Zealand today soil scientists recognise that the soil is changing. An understanding of the processes involved in these changes is regarded as basic; the study of the influence of the soil upon plant and animal is accompanied by parallel studies of the influence of the plant and animal on the soil. Background studies of this kind rank in importance with studies of immediate problems because they are needed to provide data for unsolved problems and for problems of the future.

Since soil is the product of its environment, the soils of New Zealand are being changed continually by land use. They have been modified by cultivation, fertiliser practices, and introduced animals and, in less obvious but important ways, by the introduced pastures and exotic forests that have replaced much of the native vegetation. Some of these changes involve the destruction or exhaustion of the soil (for example, by soil erosion or excessive cropping), but others reflect its improvement or enrichment.

The complex soil changes that occur under present-day grassland management are illustrated by those associated with the improvement of pastures on many soils. Low-producing pastures are mostly “sod bound” or underlaid by a tight strong sod; in places under paspalum, browntop, or Yorkshire fog, the residues of the slowly decomposing leaf bases of the grasses produce a yellowish, greasy, peatlike layer of organic matter (diagram 8A). Somewhat more productive pastures also tend to have a tight fibrous sod, but, owing to more rapid decomposition, the peatlike layer is absent and the organic matter has accumulated within the upper part of the mineral soil to form a well defined dark grey or greyish brown topsoil (diagram 8B). High-producing pastures tend to have a weaker sod. They are obtained by adding fertilisers and animal manures and by lowering soil acidity, all of which favour organisms that decompose organic matter. Under these conditions earthworms multiply, break up the sod, and bury the crowns of pasture plants with worm casts. In long-established pastures of this kind the perennial grasses and clovers have rerooted year by year in the worm casts and hence are young and vigorous, but the sod is no longer tight and strong (diagram 8C).

Where the improvement of pastures has reduced the strength of the soil in this way, puddling under animal treading during wet weather has tended to increase and place a limit on the number of animals that can graze on the pasture. The understanding and control of such changes in the soil has an important place in the future of New Zealand soils and land use.