New Zealand is well isolated from other lands, and particularly from those with high and extensive mountain systems. These mountainous areas support some 500 species which do not extend to the lowlands.

The main diversity is in the South Island, but alpine vegetation is found throughout the North Island mountain chain and isolated patches occur in the Coromandel Range.

Composites are important in the alpine vegetation, and pride of place is taken by Celmisia, a predominantly herbaceous genus, of which there are some 58 species in New Zealand and one in Australia. In C. coriacea the lanceolate leaves are in large tufts, with a silvery pellicle and may be 60 cm long. At the other extreme the leaves of C. laricifolia are tiny and needlelike. Other composites are Helichrysum, Leucogenes (native edelweiss), Haastia, and Raoulia (vegetable sheep).

The largest genus of the Scrophulariaceae in New Zealand is Hebe, which is well represented at high altitudes. Particularly interesting are the “whipcord” Hebes with leaves reduced almost to scales – H. lycopodioides and H. cupressoides. Ourisia and Euphrasia contribute attractive species to the alpine vegetation. Other prominent genera are Gentiana and Ranunculus, the latter having an important centre of evolution in New Zealand. Most striking is R. lyallii of the Southern Alps with peltate leaves up to 24 cm in diameter and large inflorescences of white flowers.

New Zealand is no exception to the general rule that the upper limit of continuous woody vegetation (usually formed here by species of Nothofagus) is lower in the Southern than in the Northern hemisphere at similar latitudes. In the Tararua Range the upper limit of the beech is lower than expected, with a belt of scrub above it. Zotov (1938) suggested that this depression of the beech is due to frequent fog formation. Most areas, however, where there is a wide belt of sub-alpine scrub lack beech altogether. This scrub can be an impenetrable barrier of prostrate trunks and stiff interlocking branches. The main type, classified by Cockayne (1928) as “shrubcomposite” scrub is dominated by species of Senecio and Olearia. Also common are Phyllocladus alpinus (mountain toatoa, celery pine), Podocarpus nivalis (mountain totara), Hebe spp., and divaricating shrubs such as Aristotelia fruticosa, Myrsine divaricata and Pittosporum divaricatum.

The first settlers found a large part of New Zealand covered by forest, but in areas such as North and South Auckland, the central volcanic plateau, and inland Hawke's Bay, burnings by Maoris or volcanic eruptions had resulted in extensive areas of grassland, fern, and scrub. Only in the drier parts of the South Island were there large areas of indigenous grassland at low elevations, and evidence suggests that a good deal of this had been in forest in the not-far-distant past. Forests are of two main types.

Podocarp-dicotylous Forest

This is a sub-tropical rain forest in which growth is extremely luxuriant, with small trees, shrubs, ferns, mosses, and liverworts in abundance. The large canopy trees are evergreen, often clothed with epiphytes and festooned with climbing plants. Groves of tree ferns are a notable feature. Despite its tropical appearance, however, this forest does not compare with that of the tropics proper in diversity of tree species. The most important trees only can be mentioned here; none of them is found in the Campbell Islands, and only Metrosideros umbellata in the Auckland Islands where it appears as gnarled and stunted in growth.

The kauri – Agathis australis (Araucariaceae) – is perhaps the most famous timber tree of New Zealand. It is prominent in forests of North Auckland, the Coromandel Peninsula, and the Barrier Islands, extending to 38° S. The resin is of great value and the digging of kauri gum over large areas shows that these forests must formerly have been of much greater extent. Closely related are two species of Libocedrus (Cupressaceae): L. bidwillii, pahautea, and L. plumosa, kawaka, which are cypress-like trees with bark which falls in long thin strips. These are cone-bearing plants or gymnosperms.

There are representatives of three genera of Podocarpus in New Zealand, also cone-bearing plants and usually dioecious. Podocarpus totara is widely distributed and prominent in central North Island. Most of the totara in Westland is the closely related P. hallii which ascends to higher altitudes. P. spicatus, matai or black pine; P. dacrydioides, kahikatea or white pine; and P. ferrugineus, miro, are common in lowland forest.

Most other large forest trees belong to the flowering plants and include taraire, Beilschmiedia taraire, (Lauraceae), one of the commonest trees of the forest of North Auckland, which disappears at 38° S. Beilschmiedia tawa, also an important tree in North Island forests, occurs locally in the eastern South Island to 42° S.

Metrosideros genus (Myrtaceae) is represented by about 11 endemic species. The best known is M. excelsa, pohutukawa, which grows in coastal forests in the north, and also on Three Kings; it is often grown in gardens and parks for its showy red flowers. M. robusta, northern rata, overtops most forest trees in the North Island and extends to about Greymouth in the South Island. It begins as an epiphyte on a tree such as rimu; finally the host tree dies and the rata replaces it. The southern rata, M. umbellata, is important in montane forests in the South Island, especially in the west. Some species are climbers, with woody rope-like stems, such as M. scandens and M. perforata, which have a general distribution in coastal and lowland forests. Their flowers are red. There is also M. albiflora, the white-flowered species, found mainly in kauri forest. The Leptospermums, too, belong to this family; these are the manukas of lowland to montane marginal forests.

Weinmannia racemosa (Cunoniaceae), the kamahi, is the commonest forest tree, extending from about 38° S to Stewart Island, and is important both in lowland and in montane vegetation. North of 38° S is the less common W. sylvicola, tawhero.

Pittosporaceae is represented by some 25 endemic species, found mainly on the margins of forests. Pittosporum eugenioides (tarata, lemonwood), P. tenuifolium (kohuhu), and P. crassifolium (karo) are attractive trees which are often cultivated.

Of the family Araliaceae, Neopanax is a genus of trees and shrubs showing great variety in the form of leaves; N. arboreum is found in lowland forests throughout and N. colensoi in montane forest. Pseudopanax crassifolium (horoeka, lancewood) is remarkable for the difference between juvenile and adult forms. Schefflera digitata (patete) is another member of this family which is widely distributed.

There are about 45 species of Coprosma (Rubiaceae) which are nearly all endemic and unisexual. C. lucida (karamu) and C. robusta (also known as karamu) are very common in forest shrubland, and C. repens (taupata) is found mainly in coastal regions.

Other trees include Carpodetus serratus (putaputaweta), Aristotelia serrata (makomako, the wine-berry), Plagianthus betulinus (Malvaceae), Melicytus ramiflorus (mahoe, whitey wood, of the violet family), Fuchsia excorticata (kotukutuku or konini) with loose papery bark and small greenish flowers. Two species of Griselinia are endemic: G. littoralis (the broadleaf) and G. lucida (puka, the shining broadleaf), both of which are often epiphytic.

Common ground plants in forest areas are: Microlaena avenacea (Gramineae), Astelia nervosa (Liliaceae), Cardamine heterophylla (Cruciferae), species of Uncinia and Carex (Cyperaceae), Epilobium (Onagraceae), Nertera (Rubiaceae), Hydrocotyle (Umbelliferae), and Ranunculus. The floor of forest of this kind is covered by an abundance of ferns, mosses, and liverworts. The tree ferns Cyathea and Dicksonia have been mentioned. Other genera well represented are: Asplenium, Blechnum, Adiantum, Histiopteris, Hymenophyllum, and Grammitis.

Oliver (1930) listed 50 species in New Zealand which are habitually epiphytic and classifies them as follows: semi-woody pteridophytes 3, filmy ferns 20, tufted ferns 7, creeping ferns 5, succulent herbs 2, orchids 7, and the tussock plants Collospermum hastatum and Astelia solandri. Four shrubs as epiphytes are Senecio kirkii, Griselinia lucida, Pittosporum kirkii, and P. cornifolium. Also prominent are the following lianes and climbers: Freycinetia banksii (kiekie), Rhipogonum scandens (supplejack), and species of Tetrapathaea tetranda (passion-flower), Parsonsia (Maori jasmine), Rubus (bush lawyer), and Clematis. Of particular interest is a group of climbing species of Metrosideros, with a habit apparently unique in the Myrtaceae.

Beech Forests

These may be dominated by one or more of the four native evergreen species of Nothofagus, often in association with certain podocarps. Beech species are not found on Stewart Island or Mount Egmont, and are also missing from a large segment of the west coast of the South Island. Beech forest may occur from sea level to timber line and in regions with rainfall as low as 25 in. per annum or as high as 250 in. per annum. Nothofagus truncata (hard beech) is the only species found north of about latitude 37°. It was common on islands in the Hauraki Gulf near Auckland and isolated patches are known in North Auckland. It is important in the Marlborough Sounds and western Nelson and reaches the Taramakau River in Westland. N. fusca (red beech) is closely related to N. truncata and extends from about 37° S to Lake Manapouri (45 ½ S). N. menziesii (silver beech) ranges from about 37° S to the southern limit of the genus in New Zealand and is the only beech found in the forests of the extreme south-east South Island. It is often found at timber line. N. solandri var. solandri (black beech) occurs at lower altitudes from near Lake Taupo to the northern half of the South Island, while N. solandri var. cliffortioides (mountain beech) tends to higher altitudes from the latitude of Taupo to the southern limit of the beeches, although absent from the Tararua Range.

Podocarpus hallii and Dacrydium cupressinum are podocarps commonly associated with beech forest.

The interior of Nothofagus forest is, in general, more open than that of podocarp-dicotylous forest. In wetter areas there is some undergrowth but in the driest forest there is very little vegetation under the dense canopy. Some shrubs and small trees commonly found are Pseudowintera colorata, Coprosma foetidissima and C. pseudocuneata, Neopanax colensoi and N. simplex, Phyllocladus alpinus, Myrsine divaricata, and small-leaved species of Pittosporum. Where there is sufficient moisture, bryophytes and ferns (such as a few species of Blechnum, Hymenophyllum, and Polystichum) carpet the forest floor, with herbaceous plants such as Nertera, Microlaena. There are few lianes or epiphytes, except mosses and lichens.

Climatic change: Holloway (1954) has shown that South Island beeches are invading new areas and that podocarps are failing to regenerate on many sites. He suggests that this was initiated about A.D. 1300 by a fall in mean or effective temperature, which gave the beeches a relative advantage over the podocarps. The long-living podocarps may still persist in situations now unfavourable to them.

Wardle (1963) suggests that climatic deterioration became most intense between A.D. 1600 and 1800, and that more recently increased regeneration of podocarps has occurred.

The coastline of New Zealand extends from 4,000 to 5,000 miles, with a great variety of physical features, sandy beaches, gravel and boulders, rocky stormtossed headlands, and often stretches of sand dunes.

There are about 600 species of seaweeds, some always submerged, others in intertidal zones, which are in three main classes, each with a distinctive colour according to the place in which they live. Agar was previously imported from Japan, for its use in food preparations and for scientific work. Now agar is extracted from Pterocladia lucida and P. sapillacea from our own shores. Corallina officinalis is one of the red seaweeds that extract calcium salts from sea water and their tissues become impregnated with lime. Red seaweeds are submerged, the brown seaweeds occupy the next zone and very common is Hormosira banksii, like a string of beads, found in rock pools. Among the kelps are the giant kelp Durvillaea antarctica, the bull kelp D. utilis, and the bladder kelp Macrocystis pyrifera, which is washed up on shore by a storm. The green seaweeds are found in shallow water, exposed for long periods between tides and represented by sea lettuce (Ulva), the thick fleshy masses on stones formed by Codium adhaereus and Caulerpa brownii which resembles a twig of the tree rimu. The Maoris called this and other seaweeds by the name rimu.

Sandy shores are too unstable to support many plants. In sheltered places the shore convolvulus (Calystegia soldanella) and the shore buttercup (Ranunculus acaulis) are found. On rocky shores there is more variety; many herbaceous and semi-woody plants are found, with more restricted distribution. In the south are a native dock (Rumex neglectus, the bronze Gunnera and Crassula moschata. A few of the more widespread plants are the true flax (Linum monogynum), some hardferns (Blechnum species), a small sedge (Scirpus cernuus), the succulent glasswort (Salicornia), and the yellow-button (Cotula coronopofolia). “Wandering” sand dunes extend inland in some areas and only plants with long underground stems can withstand the constant movement of the sand. Where such are established they arrest the progress of sand which often threatens to invade farm lands. Shore convolvulus (Calystegia), pingao (Scirpus frondosus), and Spinifex hirsutus are useful for this purpose. Sand coprosma (Coprosma acerosa), two species of Pimelia, and the Cassinias form compact shrubby growth in some exposed areas.

Juncus maritimus var. australiensis and Leptocarpus simplex, either singly or in combination, may dominate salt swamps from the North Cape to Banks Peninsula. Further south Leptocarpus only is found.

The mangrove, Avicennia resinifera, is characteristic of muddy tidal estuaries of the North Island to 38° S on the east coast, but not so far south on the west coast. This is a very unusual plant with many peg-like roots and a seed that begins germination before it leaves the plant.

Certain trees form a narrow belt of coastal forest. The pohutukawa, Metrosideros excelsa, common in the north, reaches to 38° S; the karaka, Corynocarpus laevigatus, is in the South Island also and is abundant on the Kaikoura coast to about 42° S; the ngaio, Myoporum laetum, also extends to the South Island as far as Dunedin.

In the sheltered eastern harbours of Stewart Island and the Auckland Islands, the southern rata, Metrosideros umbellata, forms a coastal forest belt reminiscent of pohutukawa in the far north. Large-leaved composites are common on the coast in the south: Senecio reinoldi of Stewart Island, S. stewartiae and Olearia lyallii on the Snares, and O. lyallii in the north of Auckland Islands.

A remarkable group of endemic species with tropical affinities is found on the northern off-shore islands. Among these are Meryta sinclairii (Araliaceae), a large-leaved tree, abundant on Three Kings Islands and Hen and Chickens Islands and representing a genus centred on New Caledonia; Xeronema callistemon (Liliaceae), common on Poor Knights and Hen Islands, is related to X. moorei of New Caledonia. Elingamita johnsoni (Myrsinaceae), an endemic of about a dozen trees on West Island, Three Kings, resembles Tapeinosperma of New Caledonia. Tecomanthe speciosa (Bignoniaceae) is a woody climber related to T. hillii of Queensland, of which only one plant has been found on Great Island, Three Kings.

Plectomirtha baylisiana (Anacardiaceae), a single tree on Great Island, Three Kings, is related to Semecarpus of Indo-Malaya.

The majority of New Zealand plants produce flowers which are small and inconspicuous. The predominant colours are white and greenish, and in many plants the flowers are unisexual, the genus Coprosma illustrating all these points. Even in plants found elsewhere with coloured flowers, as the rose coloured Calystegia sepium, the flowers in New Zealand are white. In alpine flora the flowers are much more conspicuous but are mostly white or cream in colour. Of the gentians, which are of brilliant colours in other countries, there are 24 species which are nearly all pure white or faintly streaked with colour. In Auckland Islands and other sub-Antarctic islands there are flowers with brighter colours, and the gentians range from white to crimson on different plants.

In midsummer there are bright red flowers of pohutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa) and the southern rata (M. umbellata) and the dull golden blossoms of kowhais (Sophora species). There are a few winter-flowering trees such as Neopanax arboreum with small inconspicuous unisexual flowers, and Vitex lucens with dull red flowers.

A striking feature is the number of species, about 15 per cent, which have unisexual flowers; these are mainly dioecious. Nearly all species of the two genera Clematis and Rubus are dioecious, while in Cotula and Bulbinella this habit is found only in the New Zealand species of each genus.

The distribution of plants in New Zealand is very restricted but this is not surprising when one considers how sudden within a short distance are the changes from sea level to snow line; how the high mountains cause a great variation in rainfall; and how varied are the soil and other conditions in sheltered valleys, on mountain screes, and on wind-swept shores. All types of habitat are found within short distances and each is occupied by distinct types of plants. Many of the plants found in the exposed coastal regions or in high altitudes are xerophytes. The vegetation of the North Island varies much from that of the South Island; it seems that Cook Strait forms a natural barrier to the distribution of many species. Two other definite boundaries seem to be 38° S latitude in the North Island and 42° S latitude in the South Island. In the forests of North Auckland, Great Barrier Island, and Coromandel Peninsula the kauri and taraire are dominant trees, but are not found below 38° S. Tawa is found in central North Island and to 42° S. Plants of general distribution throughout the country are manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) and bracken fern (Pteridium esculentum). A feature of the landscape is the wealth of tree ferns, and the profusion of other ferns within the shady forests has given rise to the use of a fern leaf as a national emblem.

The general aspect of vegetation is that of the conspicuous plants such as the flowering plants and conifers, and the ferns and lycopods. But of importance are the inconspicuous plants: the lichens of barren rocky regions, the mosses and liverworts of the humid interior of the forest, the fungi which are so often overlooked, and the algae both of sea and of fresh water.

The New Zealand forest is typically dark green in all seasons of the year and has little resemblance to forest of similar latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere. Deciduous trees, summer-green herbs, and annual plants are uncommon. Most of the canopy trees are evergreen with thick, tough leaves as Beilschmiedia tawa, B. taraire, and Nothofagus species. A few species of Fuchsia (Onagraceae), Sophora (Leguminosae), Hoheria (Malvaceae), and Aristotelia (Elaeocarpaceae), trees of shorter growth in the sub-canopy layer, have thinner leaves and show deciduous habit in varying degrees.

In lowland vegetation summer-green herbs are of little importance. In some areas are found small orchids (Thelymitra and Pterostylis) and in swampy areas Typha muelleri (fresh water swamps) and Scirpus americanus (salty swamps). In montane tussock grasslands are Coriaria spp., and in alpine meadows Ranunculus lyallii as herbaceous forms, while in higher altitudes on screes on the Southern Alps are found Anisotome carnosula (Umbelliferae) and Ranunculus haastii. In the sub-Antarctic Islands commonly found herbaceous plants are Bulbinella rossii (Liliaceae) and Pleurophyllum criniferum (Compositae). Allan noted the scarcity and unimportance of indigenous annuals.

A common habit of growth is found in divaricating shrubs, with densely tangled branches, small leaves, and inconspicuous flowers. Over 50 species show this habit, of which common examples are Plagianthus divaricatus of coastal salt swamps, Coprosma rhamnoides of forest, Melicope simplex of coast and forest, with Corokia cotoneaster and Sophora prostrata of open hillsides.

Mat and cushion forms of growth are characteristic of two endemic Compositae genera, Raoulia and Haastia, found mainly in the South Island. Large plants of these with their dense growth of leaves, thickly covered with white hairs, have been aptly termed “vegetable sheep”.

In swampy areas are toetoes (Cortaderia spp.), large clumps of native flax (Phormium tenax and P. colensoi), and cabbage trees with great tufts of sword-like leaves (Cordyline spp.).

Of plants showing distinct juvenile and adult forms there are some striking examples in New Zealand. Most noticeable among these is the lancewood (Pseudopanax crassifolium) of which the juvenile form has a slender stem with rigid deflexed leaves of leathery texture and sharply toothed margins, which may be 2 to 3 ft in length. The adult has a thick trunk with a crown of broad, short, erect leaves. The young trees of rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) is an extremely graceful tree of drooping habit, with tiny leaves closely pressed to the stems, but the older tree is erect, with long straight trunk and a crown of larger leaves. Some plants when young have a divaricating habit, with small leaves, as Pennantia corymbosa and Hoheria angustifolia, but lose this habit in the adult stage and grow erect with larger leaves.

Another form of growth is seen in the tussock country where “bunch grasses” cover large areas. These are referred to as low and tall tussock, red and silver tussock, and snow tussock, and are species of Poa, Festuca, and Chionochloa.

Other areas are referred to as scrub country. These are often regions where forest has been destroyed by man, or by volcanic ash, and the dominant plants now are manuka, bracken fern, tauhinu (Cassinia), and plants of similar type. Where such an area is left undisturbed, especially by introduced animals, natural regeneration of native forest may take place.

Lianes and epiphytes, usually associated with tropical and subtropical forest, are found in great profusion. Climbing by various means are characteristics of such plants as species of Clematis(by means of twining stems or petioles),Tetrapathaea (by means of tendrils), supplejack (Rhipogonum scandens) (by twining), bush lawyer (Rubus australis) (by hooked spines), and the climbing rata (Metrosideros florida) and many ferns (by roots). The perching habit of growth, merely for a place to live, is common among mosses and ferns (Asplenium flaccidum), but there are also many flowering plants such as the perching lilies (Astelia spp.), the perching kohuhu (Pittosporum), and many orchids (Dendrobium and Earina). Some species of Metrosideros and Pittosporum begin life as epiphytes. Metrosideros robusta sends roots towards the ground, and is found later to have almost replaced the tree on which it has germinated. There are few parasites. Elytranthe tetrapetala (the scarlet mistletoe) and Loranthus micranthus (the common New Zealand mistletoe) are woody shrubs which live as semi-parasites. Dactylanthus taylori, pua reinga, is a unique plant which is a root parasite and has been found in the North Island on roots of Pittosporum, Nothofagus, and Coprosma. The parasitic and saprophytic habits are common among the fungi.

The date at which New Zealand became separated from any large land mass is very vague, but certainly it was in very early times as shown by the large number of endemic species. The flowering plants which show affinities with plants of the Malayan region, such as kauri, Aciphylla, and Carmichaelia, are quoted in support of theories of ancient land connections. It is impossible to reconstruct the nature and extent of this ancient vegetation, though much research has recently been done in Paleobotany. But it is evident that vegetative changes took place as ice ages came and went, and climatic conditions changed. By the time the Maoris began to occupy the country, they found vast areas clothed in dense forest. In the centre of the North Island, however, volcanic eruptions had caused widespread destruction of the forests, the charred remains of which may now be found beneath showers of pumice and ash. Again, Maori occupation, especially in the use of fire for clearing areas for cultivation and for hollowing out their canoes, resulted in further forest losses. It was inevitable that European settlement, accompanied by the introduction of mammals, had far-reaching effects upon the vegetative cover. The indigenous vegetation had developed without the presence of land mammals (except two species of bat), but in recent years many of those introduced by man have been responsible for a great deal of damage to the vegetative cover. Many of these animals such as deer, goats, opossums, and the like not only eat leaves and destroy undergrowth, they trample young plants and so prevent the natural regeneration of forests, but they also make possible the onset of soil erosion and the general destruction of landscape features on a large scale.

New Zealand has been isolated from other land masses for so long a period that a vegetation has developed which has definite characteristics of great interest. Among these may be noted the large number of endemic species (those found only in New Zealand); the great number of species within certain genera (as species of Olearia); the absence or poor development of genera which flourish in Australia (Acacia); the number of plants with distinctive juvenile and adult forms (Pseudopanax crassifolium); the presence of some plants with affinities to plants in South America, South Africa, and Malaya (Hebe); the large number of hybrids within the genus (Nothofagus)and others; the divaricating growth forms of many coastal plants, as well as those from other habitats, and the cushion-like habit of alpine plants (Raoulia); and the large number of plants which have inconspicuous flowers, small, lacking in colour, and often unisexual (Coprosma). These are some of the main characteristics of the New Zealand flora of which the general aspect is that of large areas of dense forests with evergreen trees, scrub land with manuka, and a profusion of ferns, especially tree ferns.

The New Zealand Botanical Region consists of three principal islands: North Island, South Island, and Stewart Island, which lie between 34° 25' and 47 20' S. It includes also the Kermadec Islands (29° 15' – 31° 24' S) lying some 600 miles north-east of Auckland, the Chatham Islands (43° 35' – 44° 25' S) some 480 miles east of Christchurch, and the subAntarctic Islands, in six widely spread groups between 48° – 55° S and 159° – 179° E. The wide extent of latitude and altitude that is included in this region supports a great variety of conditions for plant growth. About 83 per cent of the species of flowering plants and all species of gymnosperms are endemic. Many of the lower forms of plants are also endemic, including about 35 per cent of the algae and ferns, and many of the liverworts, mosses, and lichens.

(Raoulia spp.).

Some of the most striking plants on rocky mountains are the vegetable sheep, or species of Raoulia, belonging to the Compositae family. The apt name, vegetable sheep, is principally applied to R. mammillaris and R. eximia, which as densely compacted, rounded cushion plants grow to several feet across and sometimes 2 ft high. R. eximia occurs in the Southern Alps from about mid-Canterbury southwards and the white colour of its flowers and also of the hairy covered leaves gives it the appearance, from a distance, of sheep. The cushions are formed by a multiplicity of branches, the ends of each branch being covered with the small woolly leaves. The stems and leaves are packed into a dense, hard, rounded mass. The inside of the cushion rots to form a spongy peat and into this the living branchlets send roots. Other species forming similar types of cushions are R. rubra of the Tararua Mountains, of much lesser size than R. eximia; R. goyenii on Stewart Island, greenish in colour instead of white; and R. buchananii of Fiordland.

Some species of Raoulia form mats, the commonest being R. australis. Its silver and green mats were to be seen everywhere in the dry parts of the South Island during the period when rabbits severely depleted the vegetation. Raoulia increased greatly at the expense of other vegetation. Since rabbits have been almost eliminated from this country, the plant is being gradually replaced. R. australis occurs from about the centre of the North Island southwards, and R. tenuicaulis is found even further north – from about Thames.

Altogether, there are about 20 species in New Zealand, all of them endemic. A few others have been described from New Guinea. The limits of some of the New Zealand species are hard to determine because of their variability and possible hybridisation.

The name vegetable sheep is applied also to species of genus Haastia, plants with similar characteristics and also endemic to New Zealand.

by Alec Lindsay Poole, M.SC., B.FOR.SC., F.R.S.N.Z., Director-General of Forests, Wellington.

(1837–1913).

Artist.

A new biography of Velden, Petrus van der appears in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography on this site.

Petrus Van der Velden was born of humble parents on 5 May 1837 in Rotterdam, Holland. He served his apprenticeship in the printing and lithographic trade, and in 1864 became a partner in the printing firm of Zijderman and Van der Velden, of Rotterdam. His main interest, however, lay in painting and in 1868 he was registered at the Academy of Art, Rotterdam. In 1869 he attended the Academy in Berlin and the following year visited the Normandy coast and worked for a time in Dordrecht. From 1870 to 1873 he devoted most of his time to painting, mainly on the island of Marken, with some success, for in 1872 his picture “Double Blank” was purchased by the National Museum in Amsterdam. The years 1873–75 were spent in Rotterdam, and during this period he exhibited frequently, to such effect that in 1875 came an invitation from Joseph Israels to join his group in the Hague. It appears that Van der Velden spent intermittent periods at the Hague until 1883, by which time he had gained a considerable reputation as an established painter.

In 1890 he sailed for New Zealand with his wife and two sons and one daughter in response to an invitation from his friend, Gerrit Van Asch, who was settled in Sumner, Christchurch. Van der Velden decided to remain in the Christchurch district and stayed first at Avonside but later moved to a house on the corner of Conference and Durham Streets where he took pupils. About 1892 he made a six-month painting trip to the Otira Gorge, providing himself with subject-matter for the best of his New Zealand paintings. In 1894 he started a life drawing class. Among his talented pupils were Robert Proctor, Elizabeth and Cecil Kelly, Leonard Booth, Charles Bickerton, and Sydney Thompson. During this first Christchurch period the artist was never far removed from poverty and felt keenly his lack of recognition.

In 1898 he sailed for Sydney, Australia, and enjoyed an initial financial success, selling his picture “Disillusioned” to the Sydney Art Gallery, but in 1900 he was in poor health. Little is known of his movements from 1901 to 1905 except that he married again, his first wife having died in 1899. It appears he did not exhibit work in Sydney later than 1901. In 1905 he returned to Wellington weakened in health. There are few pictures of this last period. In 1913 he was in Auckland where he intended to settle, but on 10 November 1913 he died there of a heart attack.

Van der Velden's genre painting of his Dutch period carries the imprint of sentimental realism, a movement headed in Holland by Israels. Arriving in New Zealand with a large number of paintings, Van der Velden continued to paint Dutch subjects in New Zealand in reminiscence, as well as versions of his existing paintings, thus accounting for the preponderance of his Dutch period works in New Zealand. His New Zealand work, nevertheless, shows a further development of his style, and his Otira paintings particularly, with their dramatic chiaroscuro, are more broadly painted and based on his axiom, “colour is light”. His masterpiece is undoubtedly “Otira Gorge”, in the Dunedin Art Gallery. In Australia and New Zealand, with the exception of occasional portraits, he painted mostly landscapes. His method of working was to follow a careful approach from drawings and watercolours to a small oil sketch before a large work was commenced. In landscape, much of his preparation work was done out of doors. His too frequent use of bitumen has caused serious deterioration in some of his oils. Through his work and his pupils, his influence on New Zealand painting was widespread, and persisted longest in Canterbury. A dedicated and prolific artist, he exhibited frequently while in New Zealand in local exhibitions. Examples of his art are in most of the public galleries of New Zealand and in the possession of several galleries in Holland.

by Thomas Esplin, D.A.(EDIN.), Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Home Science, University of Otago.

• Petrus Van der Velden, Catalogue of his Painting, 1870–1912, Auckland City Art Gallery (1959–60)
• Art in New Zealand, Vol. 3 (1930–31).