Provision for elementary education in private schools and in those established by the Provincial Councils was concerned chiefly with the three R's, nor did the Education Act of 1877 consider necessary the introduction of agriculture into a national system. Under regulations, however, and on the recommendation of the Otago Educational Institute, an elementary science syllabus was gazetted embracing “some elementary chemistry, elementary mechanics, and elementary physiology … to illustrate laws of health, the structure and operation of the simpler processes of agriculture …”

Agricultural and pastoral associations up and down the country, which by 1892 had organised an annual conference on a colonial basis, kept on pressing for elementary instruction in agriculture, mainly because of the simple faith that farmers — or some farmers — had in agricultural science and in the ‘scientific farming’ that it heralded. Said one such, in 1902: “A lot of boys who have passed all the standards are not able to answer correctly many questions asked by an ordinary farmer who has not passed any standard at all …”

Not much, however, was done last century in teaching agriculture in schools, partly because of a lack of trained teachers, and partly because the majority of children completed their education at the primary school stage.

Nevertheless, the advocates of reform persisted and by 1910, thanks in large part to the enthusiastic interest of George Hogben, the Inspector-General of Schools, education boards were beginning to appoint itinerant agricultural instructors — by 1920 there were 20 – and much inspiration was given to the pupils, especially those in district high schools. With this went the creation of school gardens, and the formation of boys' and girls' agricultural clubs.

Such activity was in line with the report of the Mark Cohen Commission (1912) which recommended that every effort should be made to create and foster in the child a lively interest in his environment, and to direct his attention to the land and its products.

The general policy thus enunciated was also regularly advocated by conferences of agricultural and pastoral associations, and by the Board of Agriculture and the Council of Education (established 1913 and both now defunct); but the chief brake on progress was still the lack of trained teachers.

The Atmore Report (1930) may be regarded as expressing public opinion of the time in its principal recommendation that “the curriculum of our public schools must include adequate practical instruction in agriculture”. But with the depression of the early thirties and the defeat of the Government in which Atmore was Minister of Education, no great changes in administrative action took place till 1946, when the primary school syllabus that had been in use since 1929 came under complete revision. The policy then adopted and still followed is expressed in the evidence submitted to the Consultative Committee on Agricultural Education (1958) by the Chief Inspector of Primary Schools: “The schools are concerned to teach agriculture on a broad basis through the subjects of nature study and social studies. Nature study aims to foster an interest in all living things, and to study farming in its broadest aspects…. Apart from nature study instruction there is a strong farm theme running through the social studies syllabus”.

In accordance with this policy the appointment of agricultural instructors by education boards has been abandoned, their place being taken by nature study specialists.

The history of agricultural education in this country begins a long time back: it could be claimed — indeed it has been claimed — that it began when Marsden and the first missionaries brought implements, seeds, and domestic animals to New Zealand and instructed the Maoris of North Auckland in their cultivation and use. The intention in this article, however, is to consider only formal instruction given in educational institutions.

Instruction has always been available at three levels (clear-cut in organisation if vague in intention and content) in the primary and post-primary schools, and for a long time at the higher level provided only at the Lincoln School of Agriculture. Today, however, well-organised agricultural education is provided at university level in Lincoln College and the Faculty of Agriculture of Massey University of Manawatu, while other post-school training, formal and informal, is offered by a wide variety of educational agencies.

Provision for adult education has been made through the Adult Education Act 1947 which set up the National Council of Adult Education and charged it with the functions “(a) to promote and foster adult education and the cultivation of the arts; and (b) to make recommendations to the Minister as to the amount of the annual grant to be made to the National Council for adult education out of moneys appropriated by Parliament for that purpose, and to receive and administer and control the expenditure of all moneys granted to the Council as aforesaid”. The Council is constituted as follows: the Director of Education (or his nominee); the Director of the National Library Service (or his nominee); the chairman of the University Grants Committee (or his nominee); two members appointed by each of the university councils (after consultation with the local regional council of adult education); one member appointed by the Dominion Council of the Workers' Educational Association; one member appointed by the Minister to represent the Maori race; and up to two members coopted by the Council itself.

The setting up of the National Council did not mark the beginnings of adult education in New Zealand. These can be traced to the early immigrants, many of whom had been influenced by movements taking place in Great Britain, so that in the very early days of New Zealand's history we find such institutions as mechanics' institutes and libraries, together with a number of self-improvement societies that were modelled on institutions in Great Britain. In most centres varied courses of public lectures were well supported, especially during the winter months.

The Workers' Educational Association, first established in England, was extended to New Zealand in 1915. This represented a partnership between the university on the one hand, and trade unions and bodies affiliated to the W.E.A. and representatives of classes, on the other. The partnership was embodied in the tutorial classes committee consisting of equal representation from the university and the district council of the W.E.A. This committee was responsible for the appointment of tutors for classes organised by the W.E.A. and for the preservation of academic standards. Small and sporadic assistance was given to this movement from Government funds but it ceased during the economic depression in the early 1930s. With the coming into power of the Labour Government of 1935, Government assistance to adult education was renewed and has continued ever since.

The present organisation of adult education in New Zealand reflects its development through the W.E.A. The National Council of Adult Education makes grants to the universities for adult education purposes. The full-time staff is technically employed by the universities but the detailed administration is vested in a regional council of adult education which the Act of 1947 enjoins must consist of at least half of representatives of voluntary bodies engaged or interested in adult education.

Thus the regional councils of adult education are like the old tutorial classes committees but they have been considerably enlarged in the scope of interests. This has led to a wide variety of activities being catered for. Each regional council has on its staff a director of adult education and a staff of tutors. These tutors may be general tutors, resident in various parts of the university district, or specialist tutors. The general tutor organises classes, discussion groups, schools, and other activities in conformity with the needs of his community. There are specialist tutors in music, drama, arts and crafts, and home science to cater for people interested in these subjects. There are also tutors whose work lies mainly with the Maori people. Indeed, considerable attention has been given to the needs of members of the Maori race as it has been recognised that, as members of a cultural minority, they have their special problems. Every effort is made to preserve features of their own culture significant for present-day living and at the same time to aim at a fusion of the two cultures that will ultimately give a distinctive character to New Zealand life. The work, which is carried out in close collaboration with the Maori tribal organisations, consists of lectures, demonstrations, and conferences. The conferences generally deal with the discussion of material circulated in advance. This is followed up with the formation of local discussion groups led by those who have attended the conferences. Special attention is also given to the needs of the rural womenfolk and close collaboration is maintained with the two country-women's organisations which undertake the organising of classes in rural areas.

Collaboration also takes place with a number of other voluntary bodies such as the Nursery Play Centres Association, Parents' Centres, Marriage Guidance Councils, British Drama League, etc. Every effort is made to meet the educational needs of a wide variety of voluntary bodies. Discussion groups are supplied with scripts and illustrative material on many topics including the arts. Work in the arts is supplemented by a community arts service operating in each of the regions. Under this scheme, plays, ballet, opera, art exhibitions, and musical ensembles are taken to the rural areas which do not enjoy such activities through normal commercial channels.

In addition to the adult education work carried out under the auspices of the National Council of Adult Education, there is also provision for evening classes in the schools under the Department of Education. These classes, originally of a vocational nature, have become widened in scope and of recent years have catered more and more for general leisuretime interests.

by Percival Martin-Smith, M.A., LL.B., National Secretary, Adult Education, Wellington.

• Further Education for Adults, New Zealand Council of Adult Education (1947)
• Adult Education in New Zealand, Thompson, A. B. (1945).

This statement shows the number of persons employed in the State Education Service as at 30 September 1963. The figures have been derived from a variety of sources and some “rounding-off” and adjustments have been necessary. Since 30 September 1963 there have been substantial increases in the teaching force.

Staff Employed in the Education Service, 30 September 1963

by Harvey Egdell, B.COM., Chief Executive Officer (Administration), Department of Education, Wellington.

Founded in 1888, the Secondary Schools' Conference brought together for the first time the heads and assistants of New Zealand high schools. Successive changes in secondary education produced alterations in the organisation's title and membership until 1951 when the present Post-primary Teachers' Association arose from the union of interests of teachers in the technical and other secondary schools.

With a current membership of nearly 5,600, the association speaks for the overwhelming majority of full-time teachers in the country's secondary system. A national executive, served by a small administrative staff, deals with an immense variety of teacher concerns and problems. Policy is forged at annual conferences attended by delegates from each branch, a branch consisting of the staff of an individual school. The association and its predecessors have had much to say on educational policy. Since 1920, for instance, it has been engaged in formal national salary negotiations. Further, there has been continuous activity in a great number of other matters of vital educational importance, including: technical education, Maori education, high ability pupils, slow learners, delinquency, television, agricultural education, standards and prescriptions for individual subjects, examination organisation and policy, the intermediate school system, personal teacher problems and rights, teacher grading and inspection, regulations, building standards, and literally scores of other matters of concern to teachers and pupils. The association publishes a monthly magazine, The Journal.

The New Zealand Educational Institute (NZEI), is a professional organisation of teachers inaugurated in 1883 by the merger of district institutes of teachers, some of which had been in existence since 1864. Its importance was recognised in 1895 by the Public School Teachers' Incorporation and Court of Appeal Act. The institute and each of its branches are registered under Part VI of the Education Act of 1964. The primary object of the institute is to advance the cause of education generally, in the main by pursuing lines of policy designed to serve the best interests of the children of the country. The necessary corollary of this primary object is a reasonable remuneration for all teachers, security of tenure, leave of absence, and a just appointments system. These aims are expressed in the institute's second object: “to uphold and maintain the just claims of its members individually and collectively”.

The corporate life of the profession is organised by the institute through a closely knit structure, extending from school staff, branches, district committees, and the Dominion executive, to the annual meeting which is its supreme court, or parliament. The institute has its representatives on many sub-committees: teachers' appointments, curriculum revision, in-service training, road safety, school broadcasting, salaries, and superannuation, to mention a few.

The institute, conscious of its obligations as a professional body, has adopted a “code of ethics”. With a membership of more than 11,000, it is the largest professional organisation in New Zealand. It is the recognised mouthpiece of the primary school teachers, and it also includes in its membership a large number of teachers in post-primary schools and teachers' colleges. The institute publishes a monthly magazine National Education, and the construction of its modern seven-storey office building, Education House, at Wellington, is expected to be completed before the end of 1966.

State post-primary schools are, either individually or in groups, under the management and control of boards set up for the purpose in accordance with the legislation. In general, the boards are composed of representatives of parents, the education boards, and local authorities and organisations having an interest in the work of the school; but the general trend is for a greater proportion of parent representation. The choice of constitution is largely determined by the wishes of the local community. The funds required for the establishment, control, and management of these schools are derived from grants distributed by the Department of Education. Post-primary school boards employ their own administrative staff under their own terms and conditions.

School committees are responsible, subject to the general direction of the education board of the district, for the day-to-day management of the buildings and grounds of the public primary schools. The committees derive their funds from moneys granted by the education boards for their general expenses and for any special purposes, and from donations and other moneys raised voluntarily in the community for the purpose of providing extra school amenities. Funds raised in this latter way are generally subsidised by the State. The committees are elected by householders of the school district concerned.

The 10 district education boards in New Zealand are responsible for the establishment, control, and management of public primary schools within their districts, including the provision of school buildings and other services. They are also responsible for the establishment and operation of district high schools, which are public primary schools with secondary departments attached; for the management and control of teachers' training colleges, and for the selection of students for entry to these colleges. Board members are elected by the school committees of the public primary schools within their education district. Boards' staff are employed under conditions of service laid down by regulations. The funds of education boards are derived from grants distributed by the Department of Education. The State also subsidises funds raised in the local community for extra amenities for schools.

The Department of Education, a Department of State under the control of the Minister of Education, is charged with the administration of the Education Act of 1964 and its amendments and the regulations made under the Act. All expenditure on public, primary, and post-primary education, except for a very small amount of endowment income, is from funds provided by the central Government through the Department. The amounts of the grants to the local boards for maintenance of buildings, administrative expenses, and the like are, in general, determined by regulations. In the case of grants for the salaries of teachers, these are determined in part by the regulations and in part by orders under the Government Service Tribunal Act 1948.

The Department is responsible for the inspection of all State schools and of registered private schools, and for the assessment and classification of teachers in public schools; and it employs a staff of inspectors for the purpose. It has under its direct control teachers in Maori schools and in the Correspondence Schools but not those in ordinary primary and post-primary schools, who are the employees of the local authorities. It controls also the Child Welfare Division (under the Child Welfare Act 1925), and the Vocational Guidance Service. In addition to the teachers and officers just mentioned, and to its administrative and clerical staff, the Department employs groups of specialist officers concerned with physical education, art and crafts, school publications, special and remedial education, and the like. Through its inspectors and professional officers, the Department offers teachers help and guidance on all school problems.

The Department has very wide functions that extend over all levels of education from the kindergartens, to the universities and over private as well as public institutions. It shares administrative responsibilities with other statutory bodies including the university authorities, primary and post-primary school boards, and with many voluntary agencies. In addition to administering the provisions under which grants are made to other authorities, the Department

• is responsible for the inspection of all State and registered private schools, and for the assessment (or grading) of teachers;

• takes the major responsibility for the recruitment of teachers, regulates their training, issues teachers' certificates, exercises a measure of control over appointments, and carries out a wide range of duties concerned with staffing, salaries, superannuation, and the like;

• issues syllabuses of instruction for schools, and conducts examinations (e.g., the School Certificate Examination);

• makes recommendations to Government for educational buildings, including university buildings, shares in the responsibility for the operation of the approved programme, checks plans, and prepares codes of practice for primary and post-primary buildings and briefings for special buildings (e.g., a teachers' college);

• authorises school conveyance systems proposed by the boards, and provides and maintains a school bus fleet of its own;

• awards bursaries and boarding allowances;

• publishes the Education Gazette, Education (a magazine for teachers), and a range of textbooks and brochures for schools;

• carries out the functions vested in the Child Welfare Division, and directly controls the Maori schools, the Correspondence School, the Technical Correspondence Institute, the National Film Library, vocational guidance centres, a psychological service, an in-service training centre for teachers, some special schools, and certain specialist services (e.g., a physical education service);

• conducts in-service training courses, and offers teachers help and guidance on all school problems through the inspectors and other officers;

• provides services for schools in the Pacific Islands and engages in international cooperation in education within the framework of UNESCO and other agencies;

• advises the Government on policy matters, ranging from the care of intellectually handicapped children to the development of senior technical work, and on legislation concerned with education.

The basic organisation of the Department of Education is shown in the plan. There is also a table showing the total number of people employed in the State education service. Not all however, are employed directly by the State, and the great majority of the teachers (for instance) are employed by local education authorities in the form of education boards or boards of governors. Both plan and table give an appreciation of the size of the service and of the relative numerical distribution of teachers and administrative officers of various types and levels of seniority and responsibility.

The Director of Education has two assistant directors to help him in carrying out his responsibilities as permanent head of the Department of Education. One is concerned mainly with professional matters and the other with administrative. The Assistant Director (Professional) has three senior officers of chief inspector status responsible to him — the Chief Inspector of Primary Schools, the Chief Inspector of Post-primary Schools, and the Superintendent of Technical Education. Together they control the inspection of schools and various specialist services, and they are particularly concerned with such professional matters as the development of the curriculum and teacher training. Under the chief inspectors are the field inspectors stationed in the various centres, and the Vocational Guidance Service, the School Publications Branch, and Maori education.

Under the Act of 1964, which became effective on 1 August 1965, certain changes were made in the designation of the permanent head and senior offices of the Department of Education.

Old

• Director

• Assistant Director

• Chief Inspector of Primary Schools

• Chief Inspector of Post-primary Schools

• Superintendent of Technical Education

• Superintendent of Child Welfare

New

• Director-General of Education

• Assistant Directors-General (2)

• Director of Primary Education

• Director of Secondary Education

• Director of Technical Education

• Director of Child Welfare

On the administrative side, there are three broad groupings of the various services, each controlled by a chief executive officer: (a) general administration and finance; (b) administration of the regulations governing teachers' conditions of service, of examinations, and of school transport; and (c) school buildings administration and architectural services.

Each of these groups is staffed by a number of officers organised at various levels in sections and divisions. Their duties, in almost all cases, involve close liaison between the professional and administrative sides of the Department. A similar general pattern of organisation is followed in the Department's regional offices at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, each of which is under the control of a regional superintendent.

Linked to the Department, but not closely related structurally, is the National Library Service. Although the National Library Service was established as a branch of the Department, it operates under Cabinet directive as a separate functional unit with direct access to Government and other Departments of State.