The Noxious Weeds Act is concerned with the clearing of specified weeds and the trimming of particular types of hedges (hawthorn, barberry, sweet brier, gorse, boxthorn, broom, hakea). Its administration is optional for county councils and certain road boards, but obligatory for all boroughs and certain town councils. In the First Schedule of the Act, which may be added to from time to time, 87 weeds out of the 600-odd species regarded as troublesome are listed, and any or all may be declared to be noxious weeds within the whole or part of the district of any local authority which administers the Act. The Act provides, inter alia, (i) for appointment of inspectors; (ii) rights of appeal by occupiers against requirements of inspectors; (iii) clearing of Crown, Maori, and local authority lands; (iv) penalties for continued default; (v) that it is an offence, without the consent of the Minister (or local authority when it administers the Act) to offer for sale, sell, sow, or propagate any seeds, cuttings, or plants of any species named in the First Schedule; (vi) that Bermuda buttercup (Oxalis pes-caprae syn. O. cernua) and nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus) must be cleared from registered plant nurseries (these weeds are not included in the First Schedule); (vii) that no person shall have in his possession any water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes); (viii) that an occupier is responsible for clearance of noxious weeds to the middle line of the road; (ix) that it is an offence to sell or sow uncleaned grain or seed; (x) that threshing machines, etc., must be cleaned before shifting from one property to another; and (xi) that local authorities may act together.

The Noxious Weeds Act of 1950 is administered by the Minister of Agriculture, and in districts where the local authority does not administer the Act, powers are exercised by officers of the Animal Health Division of the Department of Agriculture. Two other enactments concerned with weeds are also under the auspices of the Department of Agriculture – the Introduction of Plant Act of 1927, which legislates against the importation from overseas of any weed named in the First Schedule of the Noxious Weeds Act of 1950; and the Nassella Tussock Act of 1946, which provides for the control and eradication of nassella tussock (Nassella tri-chotoma), giving powers to county councils to act, and setting up two ad hoc bodies – the North Canterbury Nassella Tussock Board and the Marlborough Nassella Tussock Board – for the purpose.

Noxious Weeds

The weeds set out in the First Schedule of the Noxious Weeds Act are here listed, it being noteworthy that, apart from two exceptions (Tauhinu or New Zealand cotton wood, Cassinia leptophylla or Cassinia fulvida), all are adventive.

• Plants Which May be Declared to be Noxious Weeds

• Barberry (Berberis darwinii)

• Barberry (Berberis vulgaris)

• Barley grass (Hordeum murinum)

• Bathurst bur (Xanthium spinosum)

• Bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis)

• Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus and Rubus laciniatus)

• Boxthorn (Lycium ferocissimum syn. Lycium horridum)

• Burdock (Arctium, any species)

• Californian thistle, Canadian thistle, or creeping thistle (Cirsium arvense)

• Caper spurge (Euphorbia lathyris)

• Cape tulip (Homeria collina)

• Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla)

• Charlock (Sinapis arvensis)

• Common broom (Cytisus scoparius)

• Crack willow (Salix fragilis)

• Cut-leaved psoralea (Psoralea pinnata)

• Dewberry (Rubus caesius)

• Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare)

• Field horsetail (Equisetum arvense)

• Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea)

• Giant buttercup (Ranunculus acer)

• Goat's rue (Galega officinalis)

• Gorse (Ulex, any species)

• Greater bindweed (Calystegia sepium)

• Grecian thistle (Chamapeuce afra)

• Grey willow (Salix cinerea)

• Hakea (Hakea saligna, Hakea suaveolens, Hakea pubescens, and Hakea acicularis)

• Hawthorn (Crataegus oxycantha and Crataegus monogyna)

• Heath (Erica lusitanica and Erica arborea)

• Hemlock (Conium maculatum)

• Hoary cress (Cardaria draba syn. Lepidium draba)

• Inkweed (Phytolacca octandra)

• Japanese wineberry (Rubus phoenicolasius)

• Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense)

• Kangaroo acacia (Acacia armata)

• Kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra)

• Knapweed (Centaurea nigra)

• Lantana (Lantana camara)

• Lily of the valley vine (Salpichroa oriabifolia (Lam.) Thell, syn. Salpichroa rhomboidea Miers)

• Lupin (Lupinus arboreus)

• Malta thistle (Centaurea melitensis)

• Manchurian wild rice (Zizania latrifolia)

• Milk thistle or variegated thistle (Silybum marianum)

• Mist flower or Mexican devil (Eupatorium adenophorum)

• Montpelier broom (Cytisus monspessulanus)

• Mountain hypericum (Hypericum montanum)

• Nassella tussock (Nassella trichotoma)

• Needle grass (Stipa neesiana)

• Nodding thistle (Carduus nutans)

• Oxylobium callistachys

• Pennisetum (Pennisetum macrourum)

• Prickly pear (Opuntia monacantha)

• Pultenaea daphnoides

• Pussy willow (Salix discolor)

• Ragwort (Senecio jacobaea)

• Russian knapweed (Centaurea repens)

• St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum)

• Saffron thistle (Carthamus lanatus)

• Scentless chamomile (Matricaria inodora)

• Scotch thistle or plume thistle (Cirsium lanceolatum)

• Sedge (Carex longebrachiata syn. Carex longifolia)

• Silver poplar (Populus alba var. nivea)

• Spiderwort (Leycesteria formosa)

• Spiny broom (Calycotome spinosa)

• Squirrel grass (Hordeum jubatum)

• Star thistle (Centaurea calcitrapa)

• Stinking mayweed (Anthemis cotula)

• Sweet brier (Rosa eglanteria syn. Rosa rubiginosa)

• Tall cinquefoil (Potentilla recta)

• Tauhinu or New Zealand cotton wood (Cassinia leptophylla or Cassinia fulvida)

• Thorn apple or jimson weed (Datura stramonium)

• Tutsan (Hypericum androsaemum)

• Viper's bugloss (Echium vulgare)

• Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)

• Watsonia (Watsonia bulbillifera)

• Wild teasel (Dipsacus silvester)

• Wild turnip (Brassica campestris)

• Winged thistle (Carduus tenuiflorus and Carduus pycnocephalus)

• Woolly nightshade (Solanum auriculatum)

• Yellow star thistle (Centaurea solstitialis)

by Arnold John Heine, Antarctic Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington.

As used in relation to weeds in New Zealand, the term “noxious” is a confusing one, as it has two distinct meanings. In a general, non-specific sense, it denotes any weed regarded as significant, for one reason or another, by the use of the term. It has, however, a precise legal meaning denoting weeds whose control and eradication are required under the provisions of the Noxious Weeds Act of 1950 and its amendments. These are the so called “noxious weeds”.

Botanical Relationships of Weeds. Interpreted in the broadest sense, our weeds are representative of the major subdivisions of the plant kingdom. A minor element numerically in our weed flora, the Cryptogams or spore-bearing plants include the stoneworts (Chara) of watery places, the lichens (Xanthoria) of tiles on roofs, the liverworts (Marchantia) of glasshouses, the mosses of lawns, and the troublesome bracken fern (Pteridium esculentum) of hill-country pastures. The wide range of weedy herbs, shrubs, climbers, and trees belong to the Phanerogams or seed-bearing plants

New Zealand's weeds are disposed in more than 100 plant families, some well-known ones, and their weedy representatives including the antirrhinum family, Scrophulariaceae – foxglove (Digitalis pur-purea), speedwell (Veronica spp.); beetroot family, Chenopodiaceae – fathen (Chenopodium album); cabbage family, Cruciferae – hedge mustard (Sisymbrium officinale), wild turnip (Brassica campestris); carnation family, Caryophyllaceae – chickweed (Stellaria media), pearlwort (Sagina procumbens); carrot family, Umbelliferae – fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), hemlock (Conium maculatum); daisy family, Compositae – Californian thistle (Cirsium arvense), ragwort (Senecio jacobaea); forget-me-not family, Boraginaceae – viper's bugloss (Echium vulgare); grass family, Gramineae – nassella tussock (Nassella trichotoma), twitch or couch (Agropyron repens); iris family, Iridaceae – Cape tulip (Homeria collina), montbretia (Crocosmia x crocosmiiflora); mint family, Labiatae – horehound (Marrubium vulgare), pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium); pea family, Papilionaceae – broom (Cytisus scoparius), tares (Vicia spp.); potato family, Solanaceae – black nightshade (Solanum nigrum), thorn apple (Datura stramonium); rose family, Rosaceae – blackberry (Rubus spp.), sweet briar (Rosa rubiginosa).

Origin of New Zealand Weeds. Most of our weeds have been introduced, either accidentally or intentionally, from overseas and are native of countries in both hemispheres. The native flora has its “black sheep” which, few in number, are nevertheless significant weeds, prominent being bracken fern (Pteridium esculentum), hard or pig fern (Paesia scaberula), kanuka (Leptospermum ericoides), manuka (L. scoparium, piripiri – corrupted to bidibidi – hutawai (Acaena spp.), rushes (Juncus spp.), sedges (Carex spp.), tauhinu (Cassinia spp.), and tutu – corrupted to toot (Coriaria spp.). The native weed element includes, too, the shrubs and trees, variable in number of species according to locality, which make up the “secondary growth” of deteriorating hill-country pasture in higher rainfall districts. Other native species are less significant weeds; several aquatics, e.g., pond weed (Potamogeton spp.), are troublesome in stock-water dams, wild Irishman or matagouri (q.v.) (Discaria toumatou) and New Zealand cotton plant (Celmisia coriacea and C. spectabilis) occur in modified tussock grassland, and some mat-forming perennials, e.g., Cotula spp., Hydrocotyle spp., Pratia spp., are troublesome in lawns and playing-field turfs. An Australian plant, Carex longifolia, commonly known as sedge, is causing serious concern in Northland by spreading over dairy land. It grows in dense tufts up to 3 ft tall, its leaves being greyish-green in colour, and up to 5 mm in width.

Duration and Forms of Weeds. Many weeds, especially those of cultivated land, waste places, and modified tussock grassland, are annuals, that is, plants completing their life cycle from germination in under 12 months, familiar examples being fathen (Cheno-podium album) and chickweed (Stellaria media). Such significant weeds as hemlock (Conium maculatum) and spear thistle – misnamed Scotch thistle (Cirsium vulgare) – are biennials, completing their life cycle in less than two years, but not flowering in the first year. In some seasons and some localities annuals may act as biennials, or biennials act as annuals. Annuals and biennials are herbaceous, although in some species the stems tend to be woody, especially near the base, e.g., Bathurst bur (Xanthium spinosum).

Perennial weeds, that is, plants which live longer than two years and flower several times, are diverse in form and size and include many troublesome weeds. They range from herbs, e.g., buttercups (Ranunculus spp.), daisy (Bellis perennis), through semiwoody climbers, e.g., Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), to shrubs, e.g., gorse (Ulex europaeus) and trees, e.g., elderberry (Sambucus nigra) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia).

Broomrape (Orobanche minor) and clover dodder (Cuscuta epithymum) are total parasites, deriving all their nutrients from a range of host plants, including vegetables, ornamentals, agricultural crops, and weeds.

Aquatic weeds are of two types, the first free-floating on the water surface, e.g., water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), the second with crowns or tubers anchored in mud often several feet below the surface, e.g., Cape pond weed (Aponogeton distachyum) and oxygen weed (Lagarosiphon major).

Where Weeds Grow. Significant definable sites of growth or habitats include cultivated land, sown pastures, modified native tussock grassland, artificially afforested land, aquatic places (rivers, streams, irrigation channels, drains, dams), coastal sands, waste land (roadsides, railway reserves, river beds, vacant urban sections), and areas about industrial establishments. Some weeds are troublesome in a number of habitats, as gorse in sown pasture, modified low-tussock grassland, and waste land generally; others, as aquatic weeds, are much more specific in their requirements and may be restricted to a particular habitat. The common weeds of cultivated land, which are often found on bare or partially bare waste land too, are rarely long persistent in sown pastures on better class land because of an increasing density of the sward and greater competition. Conversely, pastures on poorer soils tend to be less dense and permanent, and the decreasing competition allows the entry of weeds, including some normally occurring in newly sown pastures. The sunny or northerly aspect (slope) on hill country generally bears a less dense vegetation than does the shady or southerly, and the weeds occurring on the two aspects are often different; for instance, on sunny slopes in modified tussock grassland in low-rainfall districts in Canterbury, there is often a predominance of short-lived annual weeds with the occasional hardy perennial, whereas on the shady aspect with a denser sward there are fewer weeds in terms of species and individuals, and these are usually longer lived annuals with more perennial species.

Conditions Favouring Weeds. The primary requirement for weeds, as with humans, is living space. In any vegetative cover, therefore, whether in domestic gardens, agricultural crops, artificial forest plantations, native forests, or pastures, bare ground, either localised or generalised, permits entry and establishment of weeds, provided seed is present in the soil or available in the vicinity for dispersal to the particular sites. Associated needs are for light, moisture, air, and subsequently, nutrients for continued growth. In satisfying these basic needs, which are, incidentally, those of useful plants, the demands of weeds may reach a level at which useful plants are starved or smothered to the point of death.

Any factor, therefore, which promotes deterioration of vegetative cover and results in bare ground facilitates the establishment of weeds; such factors include hard or over-grazing by livestock or feral animals, burning, cultivation, and flooding or drought.

Geographical Distribution of Weeds. Some weeds will tolerate, and be troublesome over, a wide range of climatic and soil conditions. They may occur, often abundantly, from the Auckland Province to Southland, as, for example, black nightshade (Solanum nigrum), docks (Rumex spp.), fathen (Chenopodium album), gorse (Ulex europaeus), rushes (Juncus spp.), and Poa annua. Other weeds may have a similar geographical range, but be absent or not troublesome over considerable areas; ragwort (Senecio jacobaea), for instance, is not significant in the low-rainfall districts of Marlborough, Canterbury, and Otago. Weeds of tropical or subtropical origin are significant in the warmer northern part of the North Island, some appearing again in parts of the Nelson Province and down the west coast of the South Island, e.g., Bermuda buttercup (Oxalis pescaprae), hakea (Hakea spp.), nut grass (Cyperus rotundus), and woolly nightshade (Solanum auriculatum). Certain significant weeds are localised in occurrence, e.g., Cape tulip (Homeria collina), nassella tussock (Nassella trichotoma), and common reed (Phragmites communis), and it is difficult to determine whether this is due to some limiting factor, such as soil or climate, or to chance, in that the seed has not been introduced into other localities.

The weed flora of low-rainfall areas in Marlborough, Canterbury, and Otago is characterised by short-lived annuals and hardy perennial species, e.g., St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum), spring speedwell (Veronica verna), sweet brier (Rosa rubiginosa), and upright cinquefoil (Potentilla recta), whereas high-rainfall areas in both islands show a different range of species, including longer-lived annuals, herbaceous perennials, and some shrubs and trees, both the native “secondary growth” element and introduced species, e.g., barberry (Berberis aristata) and spiderwort or Himalayan honeysuckle (Leycesteria formosa).

Altitudinal Range of Weeds. Many plants generally regarded as weeds have proved their ability to grow at altitudes from sea level to over 2,000 ft, but it is only at lower altitudes up to 1,500 ft that most introduced species are troublesome. Some particular plants are regarded as weeds at lower altitudes, e.g., catsear (Hypochaeris radicata), but at high altitudes the same plants are in fact useful, providing grazing or assisting in the conservation of the soil. Again, some weeds are restricted to lower altitudes, either because suitable sites for growth are lacking, e.g., weeds of cultivated land, or because climatic conditions are too rigorous for survival, e.g., weeds of tropical or subtropical origin.

Dispersal of Weeds. Dispersal of fruits and seeds from the parent plant influences the invasive capacity and sometimes the significance of weeds and may influence weed-control programmes. Fruits may be modified to ensure dispersal by particular agencies, important ones being:

1. Wind: Fruits or seeds modified for wind dispersal by parachute-like structures, as in dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), ragwort (Senecio jacobea), willow herb (Epilobium spp.), are often carried long distances; whole plants, i.e., tumble-weeds, as saltwort (Salsola kali) of coastal sands and tumbling mustard (Sisymbrium altissimum) of Central Otago roadsides, are rolled along dropping seed as they go, or, again, it may be a portion only of the plant – the seed heads of nassella tussock (Nassella trichotoma) are easily carried for distances of several miles. Non-modified fruits or seeds of many weeds are dispersed for varying distances about the parent plants.

2. Water: Rivers, streams, drains, irrigation channels, water races, and the sea carry for varying distances a wide range of weeds, not only the fruits and seeds, but also complete plants, portions of twitchlike plants, bulbs, and corms. The efficiency of such agencies is shown by the weeds which come up following floods.

3. Animals, including birds: These disperse weeds in three ways – by eating succulent or dry fruits and casting out viable seeds in the dung, e.g., blackberry (Rubus spp.), clovers (Trifolium spp.), and sweet brier (Rosa rubiginosa); by dry fruits with hooks, hairs, or spines catching in hair, wool, or feathers and being dislodged at a distance from the parent plants, e.g., many weedy grasses, horehound (Marrubium vulgare), and piripiri (Acaena spp.); and by carrying fruits or seeds mixed in mud in hooves.

4. Humans: Man in the course of his diverse activities disperses fruits, seeds, and portions of living plants, such as bulbs, corms, and rhizomes, through the agency of motor vehicles, railway equipment, agricultural and construction machinery, the packing of merchandise and produce generally. Seeds and the like are often attached to personal clothing and are carried in mud on footwear; many home gardeners have derived their oxalis (Oxalis spp.) either from bulbs in dirt around the roots of ornamental plants or in mud carried on their own footwear.

Reproduction of Weeds. Reproduction of weeds is normally by seeds (spores in ferns), but some weeds reproduce, in addition, by vegetative means which involve specialised or modified portions of the plant body. Species which reproduce in this way are often very troublesome weeds, as the following examples indicate – by underground stems or rhizomes, e.g., Californian thistle (Cirsium arvense), greater bind-weed – erroneously called convolvulus (Calystegia sepium), and twitch or couch (Agropyron repens); by above-ground rooting stems or stolons, e.g., Bermuda grass or Indian doob (Cynodon dactylon), Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum), and pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium); by corms, e.g., Cape tulip (Homeria collina), montbretia (Crocosmia x crocosmiiflora), and watsonia (Watsonia bulbillifera); by bulbs, e.g., oxalis (Oxalis spp.) and wild garlic or wild onion (Allium spp.); by tubers, e.g., climbing dock (Rumex sagittatus) and nut grass (Cyperus rotundus).

Control and Eradication. Briefly, control is limiting the spread of weeds, e.g., slashing a bush of gorse to prevent seeding, but leaving the crown intact from which regrowth can take place. Continued control measures may result in the ultimate eradication of a weed or weeds.

Measures for the control and eradication of weeds fall into four categories:

1. Mechanical: Includes digging, grubbing, hoeing, slashing, mowing, bulldozing, ploughing, or other types of cultivation.

2. Firing: Burning off of weeds, either on a restricted or an extensive scale.

3. Chemical: Involves the application of one or other of an already wide but ever-increasing range of chemicals, some of which cause the death of many species of weeds and also useful plants. There are also selective herbicides which exercise control or eradicate one or more weed species while causing no permanent damage to useful crop plants.

4. Biological: Has been achieved by several methods, including (a) liberation and establishment of insect parasites which are specific to particular weeds, e.g., seed weevil (Apion ulicis) on gorse, stem gall fly on mist flower or Mexican devil, and Chrysolina beetles on St. John's wort; (b) planting of trees to smother gorse or other woody weeds, or use of vigorous crops to smother herbaceous weeds; (c) use of farm management techniques to induce improved growth of pastures and crops giving increased competition; and (d) crushing out bracken fern, etc., by large mobs of cattle or sheep, or eating out blackberry by goats.

Weeds are an indeterminate group of plants which influence directly or indirectly every section and individual in the community, while to agriculture and cognate rural industries some 600 species constitute a major factor limiting production and causing significant economic loss. Whether or not a plant is a weed depends, in the main, on its place of growth relative to man's intentions – no plant is an absolute weed. For example, Pinus radiata in a plantation is a useful plant, but established in hill-country pasture is a weed.

Why are plants regarded as weeds? Weeds occupy ground space to the exclusion of useful plants, competing for light, soil nutrients, and moisture, or may grow where no vegetation is required. Some plants, too, have specific characteristics which under most circumstances warrant their classification as weeds. Reasons such as the following explain why some New Zealand plants are classed as weeds.

1. Compete with and smother crops in cultivated land, e.g., black nightshade (Solanum nigrum), fathen (Chenopodium album), spurrey or yarr (Spergula arvensis).

2. Invade pastures and reduce grazing, e.g., gorse (Ulex europaeus), rushes (Juncus spp.), thistles (various species).

3. Block drainage channels and impede navigation in lakes, e.g., Canadian pondweed (Elodea canadensis), watercress (Nasturtium spp.), water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes).

4. Poisonous to livestock and humans, e.g., Cape tulip (Homeria collina), hemlock, (Conium maculatum), ragwort (Senecio jacobaea).

5. Cause undesirable flavours in agricultural produce, e.g., King Island melilot (Melilotus indica), land cress or twin cress (Coronopus didymus), wild garlic (Allium vineale).

6. Reduce value of wool, e.g., bur clover (Medicago polymorpha), burdock (Arctium spp.), piripiri – corrupted to bidibidi, (Acaena spp.).

7. Cause mechanical injury to livestock and humans, e.g., barley grass (Hordeum murinum), African boxthorn (Lycium ferocissimum), needle grass (Stipa variabilis).

8. Act as hosts to insect pests and fungous, bacterial and virus diseases, e.g., weeds of the cabbage family (Cruciferae) carry clubroot; hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) carries the bacterial disease, fire blight; and many weeds are host to aphids significant in the spread of virus diseases.

9. Scramble over and smother shrubs and trees in gardens, hedges, native bush reserves, e.g., German ivy (Senecio mikanioides), ivy (Hedera helix), wild clematis (Clematis vitalba).

10. Invade and replace lawn and green swards, e.g., dandelion (Taraxacum officinale). Mercury Bay weed (Dichondra repens), Onehunga weed (Soliva spp.).

(1889–1962)

Politician.

A new biography of Webb, Thomas Clifton appears in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography on this site.

Clifton Webb was born at Te Kopuru, North Auckland, on 8 March 1889, the son of Thomas Webb and grandson of Thomas Stirrup Webb, a pioneer settler who had been associated with John Bright, the English Liberal reformer. He was educated at Te Kopuru (where he won a junior national scholarship) and Auckland Grammar School and at Auckland University College. Admitted as a barrister in 1911, he established the firm of Webb, Ross, and Griffiths in Dargaville. From 1917 to 1919 he served in the First NZEF going overseas as a sergeant in 1918. After the war he returned to practise in Dargaville, but transferred to Auckland City in 1927. Sir Clifton began his public service as a member of the Dargaville Borough Council between 1921 and 1923. In 1943, on the death of the Right Hon. Gordon Coates, he was elected as an Independent Nationalist for the Kaipara electorate. The label he bore was more a tribute to his predecessor than a description of his beliefs, as from the first he became the party whip. After the redistribution of 1946 he transferred to the Rodney seat, winning it with large majorities in 1946, 1949, and 1951.

When the National Party became the Government in 1949 he was made Minister of Justice and Attorney-General in the Holland Cabinet. Two years later he added the portfolios of External Affairs and Island Territories, holding the four until his resignation. In Parliament Sir Clifton was a forthright advocate of his beliefs. As a Minister he was a painstaking and thoughtful administrator and, in addition to his portfolios, he had the duty of overseeing new legislation and reporting it to the party caucus. He sponsored through Parliament Acts which modernised the New Zealand prison and penal system. After the 1951 waterfront strike he introduced the Police Offences Bill, which, after being considerably amended, remained in force until repealed by the Nash Labour Government. Though himself an abstainer, Sir Clifton guided through the House Bills providing minor reforms in the licensing laws and for a poll in the King Country, which, eventually permitted liquor to be sold in the area.

He represented New Zealand at the meetings of the ANZUS Council (1952), the United Nations General Assembly (1952 and 1953), the Geneva Far Eastern Conference of Korea and Indo-China (1954), and the SEATO Conference at Manila (1954).

In 1954, on the death of Sir Frederick Doidge, he was appointed New Zealand High Commissioner in London, remaining there until March 1958. He attended three Prime Ministers' conferences, two with Sir Sidney Holland and one with the Hon. T. L. Macdonald when the Prime Minister was unable to be present. He was also present at the Suez Canal Conference of August 1956, while later in the same year he led the New Zealand delegation to the Canal Users' Conference. He was appointed a Queen's Counsel in 1954 and in the New Year's Honours of 1956 was created K.C.M.G.

Sir Clifton returned to New Zealand in 1958 and lived in Wellington until his death on 7 February 1962. He married Lucy Amelia Nairn in 1915. There were two daughters by the marriage.

As a university student he was a prominent rugby player, being halfback for his province. In later life he continued his interest in the game as a referee and was at various times president of the Northern Wairoa Rugby Union and the North Auckland Referees' Association, as well as vice-president of the Auckland Rugby Union.

by James Oakley Wilson, D.S.C., M.COM., A.L.A., Chief Librarian, General Assembly Library, Wellington.

The Times (London), 7 Feb 1962.

(1902– ).

Industrialist.

A new biography of Wattie, James appears in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography on this site.

James Wattie was born on 23 March 1902 at Hawarden, North Canterbury, the third son of William John Wattie and Annie, née Gifkins. He moved to Hastings with his parents and attended Hastings West School. In 1915 he went to work at the Hawke's Bay Fruit Produce and Cool Storage Co., and two years later joined the Hawke's Bay Farmers Meat Co., where he studied accountancy in his spare time and rose to the position of assistant accountant. In 1925 he became secretary to Hawke's Bay Fruitgrowers Ltd., but was soon promoted to manager. While there he formed the idea of establishing a canning factory. In 1934 he formed J. Wattie Canneries Ltd. and opened his first factory in a small building leased from Hawke's Bay Fruitgrowers Ltd.

The venture proved successful and the factory expanded rapidly. During the Second World War the firm produced dehydrated foods, which were supplied to the New Zealand and American forces. After 1947 Wattie's began the quick freezing of vegetables, a process which led to spectacular economic development in the Hawke's Bay and Poverty Bay districts. In 1951 a branch factory was opened in Gisborne. In 1956 the New Zealand Government arranged for Wattie to visit the Cook Islands to investigate the possibility of establishing a canning industry there. More recently he has come into prominence as the owner of Even Stevens, the winner of the 1962 Melbourne Cup and other Australian turf classics. He was created C.B.E. in January 1963.

(1891– ).

Barrister and art administrator.

Gordon Graham Gibbes Watson was born at Wellington on 21 October 1891 and was educated at Wellington College and Victoria University College, where he graduated M.A., LL.B. He lectured in law for many years and served on the Council of the Wellington District Law Society, holding office as president in 1932. He served also on the Council of the New Zealand Law Society (1936–46) and was a member of its Disciplinary Committee for a long period. After many years in legal practice, during which time he was outstanding as an advocate at the Bar, he directed his interests mainly to art and commerce. From 1938 to 1949 he was president of New Zealand Academy of Fine Arts. In 1938 Watson was appointed to the Board of Trustees of the National Art Gallery and Dominion Museum, being a member of the Committee of Management of the National Art Gallery since 1941 and its chairman since 1944. In 1964 he became first chairman of the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council. In 1955–56 he was a member of the Royal Commission on Monetary and Banking Matters in New Zealand. Because of the wide range of his interests, such as horticulture and welfare, he has given valuable service to many organisations. He is chairman of directors of several companies including British Petroleum Co. of New Zealand, the Wellington Investment, Trustee, and Agency Co. Ltd., and J. J. Niven and Co. Ltd., and he is also on the directorate of many other companies. G. G. Watson was awarded a C.M.G. in 1957.

(1805–86).

Pioneer missionary.

James Watkin was born in Manchester in 1805. While still young he felt the call to preach and in 1830 was accepted as a candidate for the Wesleyan Ministry. In the same year he married Hannah Entwistle and they sailed with a missionary party to Tonga. The work of the mission was jeopardised by prolonged and involved struggles between Christian and non-Christian Tongan chiefs; Watkin faced alone the danger of tribal warfare, but the experience left him depressed and exhausted. On his removal with his family to Sydney in September 1837 he prayed for a return home to England. Instead, when John Jones offered a free passage for a missionary appointed to Waikouaiti, where Jones had a whaling station, Watkin was selected for the post and arrived there in May 1840. Here he established the first mission station in the South Island.

Watkin found the whaling settlement of Waikouaiti a centre of violence, licentiousness, and drunken depravity. Thoroughly disliking the corrupted Maoris and convinced that they were doomed to extinction, and disgusted by the brutality and vices of his fellow Europeans, Watkin laboured without hope, in the bitterness of exile and with deepening depression and distress. In spite of an abhorrence for his situation he established schools at Waikouaiti and Matanaka, and stationed partly trained Maori teachers at Stewart Island and at Moeraki. He had a natural flair for languages, preached in Maori four months after his arrival, and compiled an elementary reading book to be printed in Ngai Tahu. In November 1840 Watkin was greatly disturbed by Bishop Pompallier's visit to Otago. When, however, this was followed by Anglican intrusion – for Bishop Selwyn visited Otago in January 1844 – Watkin thought of withdrawing his own Maori teachers and abandoning the field. Never reconciled to his position at Waikouaiti, Watkin was relieved by Charles Creed and in June 1844 he sailed for Wellington, leaving 227 church members in Otago.

In 1855 Watkin settled in New South Wales, and was president of the National Methodist Conference at Adelaide in 1862. He retired in 1869 and died on 14 May 1886, at Ashfield, New South Wales.

by Timothy Holmes Beaglehole, M.A.(N.Z.), PH.D. (CAMB.), Senior Lecturer, Department of History, Victoria University of Wellington.

• The History of Otago, McLintock, A. H., (1949)
• History of Methodism in New Zealand, Morley, W. (1900).

(1824–1906).

Merchant, runholder, colonial statesman

G. M. Waterhouse was born at Penzance, Cornwall, on 6 April 1824, sixth son of the Rev. John Waterhouse, a Wesleyan clergyman of somewhat liberal views, who in 1839 accepted office as Superintendent of Wesleyan Missions in Australia and Polynesia, which post he held till he was lost at sea on a voyage between New Zealand and Tasmania on 30 March 1842.

Waterhouse was educated at the Wesleyan College, Knightsbridge, near Bristol, and in 1839 emigrated with his father and family (seven sons and three daughters) to Hobart, where he obtained a post in a merchant's office. In March 1842 he paid a short visit to Auckland, New Zealand, and in 1843 he and a brother set up their own business in Adelaide, from which he was able to retire at the age of 29 with a competence. On 5 May 1848 he married Lydia Giles, daughter of William Giles, also of Adelaide, who predeceased him by many years. There was no family.

In August 1851 Waterhouse was elected for East Torrens to the partly elective Legislative Council, where he sat until 1854 when he retired to go abroad. At this period he was also elected to the Central Board of Education, but retired when he found his views were in conflict with those of the majority. He visited the United States in 1855, where he discussed Customs reciprocity between the British colonies and America. In 1856 he was elected to the Adelaide Waterworks Board, but resigned in 1857 to contest East Torrens for the first Legislative Assembly constituted under responsible government. He sat for one session only when ill health compelled his retirement. He was elected to the Legislative Council in April 1860, and sat until his retirement in December 1864. In May 1860 he joined the Reynolds Ministry, finally becoming Premier on 8 October 1861. A month later he formed his second Ministry which lasted until July 1863 when he resigned the Premiership after his Government had been saved solely by the Speaker's casting vote. Shortly afterwards he left the colony, visiting England in 1864. He returned to South Australia in 1865, where, in June, he presided over a meeting of pastoralists seeking reclassification of their runs. He again visited England in 1865. During these years Waterhouse was a director of the South Australian Banking Co. His right to the title “Honourable” was gazetted in South Australia on 18 August 1864. The Governor, Sir Dominique Daly, also recommended him for a knighthood – but for various reasons this was never awarded.

In January 1869 Waterhouse purchased the 20,000-acre Hungaroa Station, Wairarapa, with its 18,000 sheep, from Messrs Clifford and Revans for £21,000. He poured capital into this enterprise, pioneering such agricultural techniques as dipping, and employing at times 100 men. To this he added 2,462 acres from the Crown block at Wharekaka. In 1878 he sold his Hungaroa holdings to the Hon. J. Martin, walk-in walk-out, for over £56,000. (Martin later laid out Martinborough on part of it.) Waterhouse also bought a smaller run, later extended, at Tiraumea and Whareama on the East Coast.

It was not long before Waterhouse began to take an active part in New Zealand politics. In 1869 he wrote to Lord Granville urging the retention of Imperial troops in New Zealand. In 1870 Revans suggested he should stand for Wairarapa for the House of Representatives, but Waterhouse instead accepted a seat in the Legislative Council (May 1870). In October Waterhouse represented the Fox Ministry in the Legislative Council, resigning after the session to look after his extensive business interests. On Stafford's defeat in 1872, Waterhouse accepted Vogel's invitation to head a new Ministry. While Vogel attended a Postal Conference in Australia, Waterhouse acted as Colonial Treasurer. This insight into Vogel's financial methods led him in 1873 to submit his resignation to Governor Bowen, who was on the point of leaving New Zealand. When Bowen refused to accept this, Waterhouse denied His Excellency the use of the Government steamer. Bowen capitulated, appointed Fox as Premier, and reported the incident to the Colonial Office.

In the Council, Waterhouse played an important part on various committees – Education, Wastelands, Native Affairs, and Legal Affairs being his major interests. Hall asked him to join his Ministry in 1879, but Waterhouse declined when he discovered he was to hold no portfolio. He acted as Deputy Governor to Sir William Jervois in 1884, and was for five months Speaker of the Council during Fitzherbert's absence in 1887. Jervois recommended him for a knighthood, but the Colonial Office, remembering 1873, refused. Waterhouse retired to “Hawthornden”, Torquay, in 1889, where, except for a brief visit to New Zealand in 1894, and his presence among distinguished colonial statesmen at the Jubilee in 1897, he remained quietly until his death on 6 August 1906.

After 1870, Waterhouse served on a succession of local bodies, including Lower Valley Board of Wardens (1870), Wellington Education Board (1872–73), Wellington Benevolent Institution (1873), and New Zealand Institute (1876), and was suggested as a New Zealand Commissioner for the Colonial and Indian Exhibition (1885).

When Waterhouse arrived in New Zealand, he was already a well-known colonial statesman. Possessed of a wide knowledge of parliamentary procedure, probably unrivalled in the colonies, he was well fitted for Parliament and leadership, while his flair for political tactics at times approached brilliance. Although his undoubted abilities enabled him to amass a vast fortune, his strict Methodist upbringing often conflicted with the exigencies of political life, so that whenever he found himself in a position which offended his conscience, he invariably extricated himself by resigning, a trait not always appreciated by colleagues. He was the only man ever to be Premier of two British colonies, and although twice recommended for knighthood, he was passed over both times, the first because he had entered New Zealand politics before his delayed recommendation came through, and the second because of his cavalier treatment of Governor Bowen.

His death in 1906 was noted in newspapers throughout the Empire, but it is perhaps significant that customary tributes were not paid in either of the two Parliaments in which he had so long served.

by Bernard John Foster, M.A., Research Officer, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington.

• Responsible Government in South Australia, Combe, G. D. (1957)
• Wellington Independent, 16 Jan 1869, 14 Sept 1869
• Torquay Times and South Devon Advertiser, 10 Aug 1906 (Obit), 24 Aug 1906.

The following table gives the expenditure by local authorities on the construction and maintenance of sewage and drainage works over the period 1959 to 1964 compared with total expenditure for all works.

These figures were abstracted from the Local Authority Statistics published by the Department of Statistics. NOTE—Total expenditure on all works excludes that by special-purpose authorities apart from urban drainage authorities.

by Denis Anderson Ferrier, B.E.(HONS.), B.SC.(N.Z.), D.I.C. Civil Engineering Division, Ministry of Works, Wellington.